Environment

FRANCE-tourist destination

2009-12-07T05:06:00.000-08:00

While Metropolitan France is located in Western Europe, France also has a number of territories in North America, the Caribbean, South America, the southern Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and Antarctica. These territories have varying forms of government ranging from overseas department to overseas collectivity.

Metropolitan France covers 547,030 square kilometres (211,209 sq mi), having the largest area among European Union members and slightly larger than Spain. France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from coastal plains in the north and west to mountain ranges of the Alps in the south-east, the Massif Central in the south-central and Pyrenees in the south-west. At 4,807 metres (15,771 ft) above sea-level, the highest point in Western Europe, Mont Blanc, is situated in the Alps on the border between France and Italy. Metropolitan France also has extensive river systems such as the Loire, the Garonne, the Seine and the Rhône, which divides the Massif Central from the Alps and flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the Camargue, the lowest point in France (2 m/6.56 ft below sea level). Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast.

The Exclusive Economic Zone of France extends over 11,000,000 km2 (4,000,000 sq mi) of ocean across the world.

France's total land area, with its overseas departments and territories (excluding Adélie Land), is 674,843 km2 (260,558 sq mi), 0.45% of the total land area on Earth. However, France possesses the second-largest Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,637 sq mi), approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world, just behind the United States (11,351,000 km2/4,382,646 sq mi) and ahead of Australia (8,232,000 km2/3,178,393 sq mi).

Metropolitan France is situated between 41° and 51° North, on the western edge of Europe, and thus lies within the northern temperate zone. The north and northwest have a temperate climate, while a combination of maritime influences, latitude and altitude produce a varied climate in the rest of Metropolitan France. In the south-east a Mediterranean climate prevails. In the west, the climate is predominantly oceanic with a high level of rainfall, mild winters and cool to warm summers. Inland the climate becomes more continental with hot, stormy summers, colder winters and less rain. The climate of the Alps and other mountainous regions is mainly alpine, with the number of days with temperatures below freezing over 150 per year and snow cover lasting for up to six months.

ITALY-tourist destination

2009-12-07T05:03:00.000-08:00

Geography

Italy is located in Southern Europe and comprises the long, boot-shaped Italian Peninsula, the land between the peninsula and the Alps, and a number of islands including Sicily and Sardinia. Its total area is 301,230 km², of which 294,020 km² is land and 7,210 km² is water. Including islands, Italy has a coastline and border of 7,600 km on the Adriatic, Ionian, Tyrrhenian seas (740 km), and borders shared with France (488 km), Austria (430 km), Slovenia (232 km) and Switzerland; San Marino (39 km) and the Vatican City (3.2 km), both entirely surrounded by Italy, account for the remainder. The Apennine Mountains form the peninsula's backbone; the Alps form its northern boundary. The largest of its northern lakes is Garda (143 sq mi/370 km2); in the centre is Trasimeno Lake. The Po, Italy's principal river, flows from the Alps on the western border and crosses the great Padan plain to the Adriatic Sea. Several islands form part of Italy; the largest are Sicily (9,926 sq mi/25,708 km2) and Sardinia (9,301 sq mi/24,089 km2).

Volcanism

Italy is a volcanically active country, containing the only active volcano in mainland Europe. The country's volcanism is due chiefly to the presence, a short distance to the south, of the boundary between the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate. The magma erupted by Italy's volcanoes is thought to result from the upward forcing of rocks melted by the subduction of one plate below another.

There are several active volcanoes in Italy: Etna, the second-largest active volcano in Europe; Vulcano; Stromboli; and Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe.

Climate

The climate in Italy is highly diverse and can be far from the stereotypical Mediterranean climate depending on the location. Most of the inland northern areas of Italy, for example Turin, Milan and Bologna, have a continental climate often classified as humid subtropical (Köppen climate classification Cfa). The coastal areas of Liguria and most of the peninsula south of Florence generally fit the Mediterranean stereotype (Köppen climate classification Csa). The coastal areas of the peninsula can be very different from the interior higher altitudes and valleys, particularly during the winter months when the higher altitudes tend to be cold, wet, and often snowy. The coastal regions have mild winters and warm and generally dry summers, although lowland valleys can be quite hot in summer.

maintain our environment clean and green

2009-11-01T23:08:00.000-08:00

Keep plants around the house. Plants are amazing at cleaning their environment. Having them in your house can reduce indoor air pollutants by more than half. Great choices are English ivy and peace lilies, which absorb toxic gases like benzene and formaldehyde. Just be sure that if you have pets and/or small children that you opt for plants that are not poisonous.

Never flush your old medications. In almost everyone’s medicine cabinet there is expired medications. But whatever you do, do not flush them! That puts them into the water, which can be dangerous. Instead inquire at your pharmacy about whether they will take them and dispose of them properly. If they cannot handle them they will at least be able to tell you where you can take them.

Don’t waste heat when the fireplace is on. An open fireplace wastes up to 85% of the gas it uses because, like a wood-burning fireplace, the fire sucks heat from inside and sends it out through the chimney. Direct-vent gas fireplaces burn more efficiently and can save you money.

Use less water when you bathe. Baths typically use less water than showers. So whenever possible opt for a soak in the tub. If you prefer showers keep them short. Ten minutes is way too long. And be sure to install a low-flow showerhead and faucet to reduce the amount of water. You can cut back nearly 50% of the water used and barely even notice the difference.

Install new toilets. Newer toilets use significantly less water than older ones. And the low-flush toilets not only conserve water but they actually reduce the greenhouse gases produced in the water-purification process. If you can’t afford to buy a new toilet, a great alternative is to place a plastic water bottle – with the cap on – in the tank. Doing so means less water is used for each flush.

Have it fixed instead of throwing it out. With the price of many consumer goods getting less and less every year, it’s tempting to simply replace old electronics and appliances when they break. But often they can be repaired for a fraction of the cost. Not only do you save money, but you’re keeping that item out of the landfill.

Hang your clothes to dry. The average household does more than 400 loads of laundry in a year. That is a lot of electricity to dry all those clothes! You can cut this down dramatically by hanging your clothes to dry. In the winter months opt for an indoor drying rack. When it’s warm outside you can move your indoor rack out to a deck or patio, or use an outdoor clothesline. There are many new styles of clotheslines available now that are easily removable when not in use or that can be elevated to keep them out of the way.

Reduce the waste when giving gifts. Instead of wrapping paper, choose newspaper (the comics work great when they’re in color), reusable gift bags or even leftover wallpaper. When you receive a gift packaged in a reusable material be sure to save it for later. Also save your greeting cards and recycle them into gift tags.

Reuse products whenever possible. Have you ever looked at just how much waste your family generates in a one week period? Manufacturers use so much packaging that it is easy for a family of four to have several bags of waste come garbage day. Next time you’re thinking of throwing something out, try and think of ways you can reuse it instead. For example old containers can be used for storage, stained clothing can be used as rags for cleaning and broken hockey sticks make great garden stakes. If you get creative you may be surprised how many new uses you can find for items you thought were trash!

Donate things you don’t use any more. Instead of throwing out items you don’t use anymore, give them to charity. Old clothing, shoes, home décor items, sporting goods and toys are all happily accepted by charities such as the Salvation Army. You’ll have less clutter in your garage and your donation will help families in need.

Say no to junk mail. So much paper is wasted on sending junk mail and flyers. Put up a sign on your mailbox refusing these items and send a message to advertisers that you want them to change their marketing techniques. If enough people do this they will eventually listen.

Use cloth instead of paper. Using paper napkins and paper towels generates a lot of unnecessary waste. Did you know that the paper industry is the third greatest contributor to global warming emissions? So instead of paper, opt for cloth. A great source of rags is to use old clothes that are too stained or tattered to be worn anymore.

Use rechargeable batteries. If yours is like most households, you have a lot of things that run on batteries. Everything from the TV remote to your camera. And if you have children you can add a seemingly endless number of toys to the list! Do the environment a favor and use rechargeable batteries. They cost more upfront but they generate significantly less waste and in the end will save you money. Solar powered battery rechargers are even available online.

Find out what you can recycle. Different cities accept different items for recycling. It is important that you know exactly what is being recycled in your area. A lot of people put out items week after week thinking they are being recycled when in fact they are being thrown in the garbage at the recycling facility. By knowing the policies in your city you can avoid buying products that are not sold in recyclable containers and you can ensure you are putting out all of your garbage that can be recycled.

Dispose of hazardous materials properly. Most municipalities have programs for properly disposing of hazardous materials such as old tires, batteries, electronics, used oil materials and toxic substances such as paint and paint thinners. Be sure to inquire in your area about programs designed to keep these potentially dangerous materials out of the landfills.

Install water saving showerheads and faucet aerators. Heating water accounts for approximately 15% of the average household energy bill. Cut this down by installing water saving showerheads and aerators on kitchen faucets. They use nearly 60% less water and chances are you won’t even notice the difference (until you get your electricity bill!)

Use all natural cleaning products. Almost all household cleaning can be done using vinegar, baking soda and water. Use vinegar as a natural disinfectant, deodorizer, all purpose cleaner and window cleaner and add it to the rinse cycle of your laundry as a fabric softener. Clean your bathtub, toilet and counters with a paste of baking soda and water. If you prefer to use commercial cleaners, there are many companies now offering environmentally friendly versions.

Buy recycled products whenever possible. Many of the products that we use every day can be made from recycled materials. Doing so saves 70% - 90% of the energy and pollution versus using virgin materials. In particular, paper products are a great place for you to choose more environmentally friendly products. Look for bleach-free toilet paper and printing paper that are made from a minimum of 80% post-consumer waste content.

Reuse paper. A lot of the paper we recycle only has printing on one side. Instead of using a fresh piece every time, print on the other side for documents that are not important. You can also reuse paper as a scratch pad for notes or put them together as a pad and keep them next to the telephone for taking messages.

Read the news online. Daily newspapers generate a huge amount of waste. Even though this can be recycled, it is better to eliminate this unnecessary use of paper entirely. Instead of subscribing to newspaper services, read the news online. Think about how much paper this will save over an entire year!

Borrow books and magazines from the library. Libraries are a great resource for anyone looking to reduce the amount of waste they generate. Instead of purchasing books and magazines, check them out of the library.

Avoid dry-cleaning your clothes. The majority of dry cleaning chemicals are highly toxic. Not only are these chemicals harmful for the environment, but also they remain on your clothes as you continue to wear them, which can present a health risk. When buying clothes, opt for items that you can wash at home rather than needing to be dry-cleaned. And keep in mind that most items that say ‘dry clean only’ can actually be washed by hand with a mild detergent and cold water. If your garment absolutely cannot be hand washed, look for a cleaning service that practices wet cleaning instead of dry cleaning.

Don’t use antibacterial cleaners. We have become a society that is obsessed with living germ free. And we may be hurting ourselves more than we’re helping. Antibacterial cleaners contain a chemical known as triclosan, which is a form of dioxin. In addition to causing a variety of health related problems including decreased fertility and birth defects, this chemical is also mixing with the chlorine in our tap water and forming deadly chlorinated dioxins. So you’re better off just using regular soap. In fact, doing so will kill 99.4% of germs. Compare that with antibacterial soap that kills 99.6%.

Teach your children about being environmentally responsible. Our children really are the future of our earth. Start teaching them early about the importance of making environmentally friendly choices and it will become second nature to them. Make sure that you also practice what you preach! Kids are much more likely to do what they see you doing – rather than what you tell them to do.

Choose environmentally friendly baby products. The amount of chemicals used to create baby products today is staggering. Not to mention the amount of waste generated! Disposable diapers are the single largest type of garbage in our landfills. Refuse to contribute to the problem by using cloth diapers. Nowadays they are designed to be easy – no more pins! And many communities actually have services that drop off clean diapers each week and pick up the soiled ones.

Have a battery free Christmas. If you have children, make next Christmas “battery free”. Tell all family and friends that instead of toys that require batteries to run, that you would rather your children be given gifts such as books, puzzles and non-electronic toys. Not only will you help the environment by using less batteries, you’ll also save money and your kids will use their imaginations more. Even if you don’t have children of your own, make it a policy to only give battery free gifts.

Pay your bills electronically. Almost all companies now offer the option to receive your bills electronically and pay them through online banking or telephone banking. Save all that unnecessary paper by using this service.

Get involved in environmental charities. There are lots of different charities that are devoted to helping the environment. Whether you choose an international organization such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) or something more local, the important thing is to get involved. You’ll feel great, help a worthwhile cause and be setting a good example for the other people in your community.

Turn the tap off. Your mother probably told you to do it when you were a child, but do you? When brushing your teeth or shaving, always be sure to turn the water off. Even a few seconds can waste a tremendous amount of water unnecessarily. It’s a simple thing that can have a big impact on the amount of water used in your home.

Buy your energy from eco-friendly utility companies. There are many companies now offering electricity that is generated from renewable resources such as wind and low-impact hydroelectric generation. Inquire in your area about companies that use these services for all or part of their electricity and make the switch! If enough people start to do this, more and more companies will begin offering it.

Wash your car on the lawn. This does double duty – you get a clean car and you water your grass at the same time. Plus you are using a lot less water than is used at commercial car washes. Be sure to use a bucket or a trigger hose attachment so you only use the amount of water you need.

Sweep walkways, patios and driveways. Instead of spraying them down with your hose and wasting water, get out the old fashioned broom. They’re just going to get dirty again soon anyway!

Look for little ways you can make a difference. Sometimes the best thing we can do for the environment is to make small changes in our every day life. When we add them all up, we can make a significant difference. Look at everything you do in a day and see what you can do differently. For example, if you are a tea drinker only boil as much water as you need in the kettle. If you generate a lot of garbage think of a couple of ways you can cut back.

Follow these steps to live green

2009-10-23T06:59:00.000-07:00

When buying your groceries, remember the four Ns. Choose food that is NATURAL, (meaning no pesticides have been used and it is as minimally processed as possible), NAKED (as little packaging as possible), NUTRITIOUS and NOW (in season).

Buy your food locally whenever possible. Most cities have farmer’s markets where you can purchase produce, meats, breads and baked goods from local vendors. Not only are you supporting your local economy, but these are usually fresher and healthier options. You can also talk to the seller directly to find out their practices when it comes to the use of pesticides, hormones and preservatives. An added bonus is that the food wasn’t trucked in which means less fuel usage and fewer emissions.

Pack lunches in reusable containers. The amount of packaging used for food nowadays is staggering. Help reduce it how you can by opting for reusable containers when packing lunches. There are lots of options available in a variety of different sizes so you can pack everything you need. Be sure to include reusable silverware if needed as well.

Purchase products you use often in bulk. Single serving food products are a huge waste of packaging materials. By buying in bulk you cut down on the amount of packaging that needs to be thrown out and buying more at a time means less trips to the store to pick things up.

Compost your kitchen waste. Composting your fruits and vegetables is an excellent way to cut down on the amount of garbage going in to our landfill sites, and provides nutrient rich soil that you can use in your garden. Some communities are now starting city run composting programs so be sure to check for a program like this where you live.

Don’t waste water while waiting for it to heat up. Running the tap while waiting for the water to heat up is an unnecessary waste. Instead of letting this run down the drain, catch it in a pitcher or pot and use it to water your plants, save it for cooking or put it in the fridge as drinking water.

Use less energy when you cook. There are several things you can do to cut back on the energy you use when cooking. When boiling water put a lid on the pot and it will boil faster. Once it is boiling, turn down the heat (water that is lightly boiling is the same temperature). Most foods don’t require the oven to be preheated so don’t waste energy on this. When using the oven for cooking items such as roasts, you can turn it off for the last 15 minutes and the heat left will finish the cooking. All of these can help you to use less energy in the kitchen.

Thaw foods before cooking them. It takes longer – and uses more energy - to cook foods from frozen. Instead, think ahead about what you will be cooking and when and thaw it first. Likewise, take items out of the fridge before it is time to put them in the oven to bring them up to room temperature.

Keep drinking water in the refrigerator. Instead of having to run the tap to get cold water every time you want a drink, keep a pitcher in the fridge. This will also help you avoid buying individual bottles of water that generate an unnecessary amount of waste.

Run the water less when preparing meals. Next time you cook a meal, put a big bowl underneath the faucet and see how much water is collected every time you wash your hands, rinse your food, etc. You may be surprised how much water is being wasted. Reduce this by instead keeping a bowl of water in the sink to wash your hands in. Keep another one to wash fruits and vegetables in. This way you are only using that one bowl of water instead of letting the tap run.

Look for paper plates that can be composted. The paper plates you are used to seeing in the supermarket are made from virgin tree pulp. They are then coated in a petroleum-based wax, which means that when you are done with them they cannot be recycled. But now there is a new type of paper plate made from “bagasse”. It is a left over from sugar processing and when used to make paper products is compostable. So now you can still be good to the environment and not have to do dishes after the family picnic!

Save Energy For The Future

2009-10-22T03:04:00.000-07:00

household energy save

Keep your furnace running efficiently. Your furnace is the most expensive appliance in your house to run. In fact household heating accounts for 60% of all energy used in the average home. Make sure it is operating as efficiently as possible by replacing its filter every two months. A great option is to purchase one of the reusable filters that can be washed on a regular basis. You’ll pay more for them but they last for years so in the end they cost less than disposable filters. The few minutes it will take you to properly care for your furnace can increase its energy efficiently by as much as 50 per cent.

Install a programmable thermostat. Heating and cooling your house when no one is home – or when everyone is in bed – uses an unnecessary amount of energy. This is bad for the environment and bad for your checkbook! Instead of wasting that energy, buy a programmable thermostat and set the temperature to be several degrees cooler (or warmer in the summer) during the night and when the house is empty. You can easily have it back to the temperature you like by the time you wake up or arrive home.

Wrap your hot water heater in a blanket. Every hardware store sells fiberglass blankets that you can wrap around your hot water tank to help it hold in heat. They are easily installed (you can do it yourself) and usually pay for themselves in the first year of use.

Opt for a tankless hot water solution. If your hot water tank is getting old and you’re considering replacing it, choose one of the new tankless hot water options. They heat water as you need it instead of keeping an entire tank heated and ready to go at all times. As a result they use significantly less energy, which is better for the environment. And an added bonus is that you can expect to save about 50% on your hot water heating costs.

Keep your house cool naturally. Closing the blinks and curtains and using ceiling fans can dramatically decrease the temperature of your home during the heat of the summer. If you must use air conditioning, keep it at 75F and reserve its use only for the hottest days. A programmable thermostat is a great option to raise the temperature during the night and when no one is home.

Replace your incandescent light bulbs. Although they cost more upfront, the compact fluorescent light bulbs will save you a lot of money in the long run. They use 75% less electricity than incandescent light bulbs and last up to 10 times longer! That means you pay significantly less for electricity and are not throwing nearly as many light bulbs into the landfill. If you were to change only five of the light bulbs that you use the most often to compact fluorescent bulbs you could save more than $30 per year.

Turn off the lights. A lot of people are guilty of leaving lights on all over the house. But remember that every little bit of electricity you can save counts! Make it a policy in your home to always turn the lights off when you leave a room. Same making sure that the television, stereo and computer are off when not in use. For outdoor lights, consider a timer or use motion detectors instead of always leaving outside lights on.

Make sure your refrigerator and freezer are operating efficiently. Refrigerators that are more than 10 years old use approximately 60% more electricity than new models. To make sure you are not using more energy than needed, keep the temperature of the fridge at 37F and the freezer at 0F. This will keep your food at the perfect temperature without using excess electricity. Another great tip is to clean the condenser once or twice a year so that the motor does not have to run as long or as often.

Use your microwave. Not all foods are great when cooked in the microwave, but there are lots of times you can use it over your conventional oven. Since your microwave uses 75% less energy than your oven, it’s worth it to find new ways to use it when cooking!

Unplug electronics when they are not in use. Did you know that your television, DVD player, computer and kitchen appliances all use some electricity even when they are not turned on? Avoid wasting this electricity by unplugging them if you won’t be using them for a day or longer. And remember to unplug them before you leave home for vacations.

Use countertop appliances over their stovetop equivalent. When you are steaming vegetables or boiling water in the kettle, opt for countertop appliances instead of using your stove. They use significantly less electricity and get the job done faster.

Only run a full load in the dishwasher. Before running a cycle through your dishwasher, make sure it is full. You’ll use less electricity and less water – and an added bonus is that your dishes will come out cleaner! And always be sure to let your dishes air dry or use the cool dry option rather than using the heat dry setting. This alone will cut the amount of energy used for each load by 15% - 50%!

Change to digital dimmer switches. Although having dimmers on your lights is a great way to save energy, some of the older styles are no more efficient than regular switches. If you have a dial dimmer, check to see if the switch itself feels warm. If it does, you are not saving any energy by using it. Consider replacing it with one of the new digital dimmers to increase the amount of energy saved.

Make your swimming pool more energy efficient. Pools account for as much as 60% of a home’s summer energy costs – and more in parts of the world where pools are used year round. Cut this down by as much as 20% simply by using a solar blanket to help keep the pool warm. Save another 20% by turning down your pool heater by a few degrees.

Insulate your hot water pipes. Insulate the first meter of pipe leading into and out of your hot-water tank as well as any metal hot-water pipes running through unheated spaces in your home. This quick and easy project will reduce the amount of electricity you use and save you some money.

Clean out your lint filter. Having a full lint filter in your clothes dryer can result in 30% more energy being used. Be sure to clean it out before every use and scrub it with a soft bristle brush every few months. To check and see if it needs to be cleaned, fill it with water and see whether it drains. Often tiny particles can clog the holes even though it appears that they are clear.

Install motion detectors on your outdoor lights. Instead of leaving on your outdoor lights all evening, install motion detectors so they only come on when needed. This relatively simple change can save as much as 30% of the electricity needed for your outdoor lighting.

Keep your refrigerator and freezer well stocked. A half empty fridge or freezer uses significantly more energy than a full one. If you don’t have anything else to add, fill up bottles of water and put them where needed to keep things full.

Work on weatherizing your home. If your house is drafty you are literally throwing money out the window. Spend a bit of time sealing up doors and windows to cut down on heat loss. Also be sure to check that you have enough insulation. In older homes the attic in particular can benefit from increased insulation. If you’re not sure what you’re looking for, it’s well worth it to hire a professional to do an energy audit.

Buy a slow cooker. Also known as “crock pots”, slow cookers can be used for everything from roasts to stews. Because new ones use only the same amount of energy as a single light bulb, they are a very energy efficient way of cooking.

Stop losing heat. There are several places in your home where you are losing heat and may not even realize it. One that most people overlook is the electrical outlets. In particular in older houses where there is not much insulation in the walls. Stop this heat loss by putting in those little plastic child proofing plugs.

Turn down the temperature of your hot water heater. Most houses have the hot water heater set much hotter than it needs to be. As a result you end up having to mix a lot of cold water in to get it to a temperature that is useable. Make sure your hot water heater is set to no higher than 140F. That is hot enough to kill germs but not so hot that it is a huge waste of energy.

Investigate grants that will help you improve your home’s energy efficiency. Changing the way we live is becoming so important that in many parts of the world the government and energy companies are helping homeowners by paying – or at least subsidizing – energy saving measures. Find programs in your area by searching the web, calling your energy supplier or asking your local officials.

Request a home energy audit. A lot of utility companies now offer free energy audits to their customers. Check with yours to see what is available. You may be surprised at what you learn about how you are wasting energy.

Swine flu or H1N1

2009-09-30T10:18:00.001-07:00

Athe end of 2008, the swine flu or H1N1 looks a lot like the pattern of the Spanish flu of 1918-19 which killed millions, when the population was a lot smaller. And this version has the potential of actually causing a "double dip" in the world economies. It is that strong with that much potential. And now we have a United Nations report that looks very serious.

The swine flu pandemic could kill millions and cause anarchy in the world's poorest nations says a UN report. The disclosure will provoke concerns that health officials will not be able to stem the growth of the worldwide H1N1 pandemic in developing countries. If the virus takes hold in the poorest nations, millions could die and the economies of fragile countries could be destroyed.

Millions could die right here in America too.

Gregory Hartl of WHO said the report required an urgent response from rich nations. "There needs to be recognition that the whole world is affected by this pandemic and the chain is only as strong as its weakest link. We have seen how H1N1 has taken hold in richer nations and in the southern hemisphere. We have been given fair warning and must act soon," he said.

The report was drawn up by UN officials over the last two months. It was commissioned in July after Ban ki-moon, the UN's secretary general, expressed concern that the H1NI virus could have a severe impact on the world's poorest countries. It paints a disastrous picture for the world's most vulnerable people unless there is immediate help.

The UN's request for the money comes as the virus begins to establish itself in some of the world's most vulnerable countries. Health officials said that the African continent had recorded 8,187 confirmed cases of swine flu and 41 deaths. Swine flu was declared a pandemic in June and has since been identified in 180 countries.

Pandemic experts believe that the western world, including Britain, is facing a second wave of the virus.

The "Spanish" influenza pandemic of 1918–1919, which caused 50 million deaths worldwide, remains an ominous warning to public health.

source:-articlebase.com

Save Now for a Greener Tomorrow

2009-09-30T10:16:00.000-07:00

We are taught from an early age to Save for A Rainy Day, Save For Retirement, Save In Case Of An Emergency... well you get the picture. All these examples are referring to saving money, a smart prudent thing to do. For most of us in recent times, unfortunately, our savings account has become our living account. Now they are asking us to Save The Planet. Did you know that doing your part cannot only help save the earth, but also save you money in the process? You can feel good about yourself and put cash in your pocket, or back into that savings account where it belongs. There are things you can do starting today, which will only cost you the effort to implement them.

Four Tips That Will Save Money

As with most changes, sacrifice can be a part of efficiency. Here are four essential steps you can start taking today to live green, save money, and it won’t cost you a dime.

1. Turn your heater thermostats down one or two degrees in winter, and turn your air-conditioning thermostats up one or two degrees in summer. If we all did this, the combined difference would be phenomenal. You will notice a significant savings in your electric bill.

2. Start washing your clothes in cold water. Modern powders perform just as efficiently in cold water as hot. Most of the energy that goes into washing clothes is in heating up the water. So you will save on electricity, live green and save money too.

3. On sunny days think about hanging your clothes on an old fashion clothing line. You will not only save money, but your clothes will smell fresher.

4. Try to consume a little less of everything, from electricity, to gas in the car, to the food you eat. Take time to write out a shopping list, and stick to it. If you feel the impulse to buy something you don't really need, get into the habit of waiting 24 hours, then review it. The chances are you either won't want it any more, or will have forgotten all about it.

Small Investments Will Payback Ten Fold

Ways to Cut Your Energy Bill
1.If you don’t already, look for leaks, this is a good place to start. I don’t mean just water, but also energy leaks. Yes, there are such things as energy leaks. If your house isn’t properly insulated, you are losing more money than perhaps you realize. You should not only make sure your loft is insulated, but any hot water pipes as well. This is a very small price to pay, but you will recoup this investment very quickly.

2. Consider getting a new toilet cistern that will use less than two gallons of water per flush. Standard cisterns use about three and a half gallons. Because of plastics, this is no longer a big expense.

3. Compact fluorescent light bulbs are a dream come true for anyone who wants to live green and save money. They burn just 25% of the electricity that a standard light bulb burns, and they can last up to 10 times longer. Change your old bulbs today, or if you must be frugal, as the current ones burn out. The two drawbacks that critics used to discredit the fluorescent, that being the expense and the difference in lighting that the bulbs give off, have greatly diminished. The hue the fluorescent gives off, while still not the same has recently improved. I have seen these bulbs in the local dollar stores, so everyone can now take advantage of them.

Making your home eco friendly

2009-09-30T10:15:00.000-07:00

Making your home eco friendly can be fun and easy. Most importantly, it doesn’t have to cost a dime! Many eco friendly strategies, such as converting to solar or wind power, are impractical or impossible for most people. There are still plenty of small things that you can do, however, that are will make a big difference over time.

Basically, it’s all about habits. Small changes in everyday behaviors will have an enormous impact on how eco friendly your home becomes. Developing a habit takes about 21 days so commit to doing things a little differently over the next month. Choose just one or two areas on which to focus and, once those habits are set, move on to another area.

Eco Friendly Habits

Take a cloth bag every time you go shopping – Plastic and paper bags waste a tremendous amount of resources and clog landfills. Re-purpose a tote bag that you already have or get one from a local thrift store.

Use natural, homemade cleaning products – Baking soda and vinegar, either alone or together, are safe and effective for a variety of home cleaning needs. Search the Internet for non-toxic, homemade cleaner recipes.

Cut down on waste – Buy items in bulk or with minimal packaging. Don’t bring anything into the home without assessing its useful life and whether you really need it. Creatively re-purpose or recycle as many items as possible. Make sure to compost food waste and yard trimmings.

Conserve water –Turn off the faucet when bushing teeth or shaving. If possible, install low flow showerheads and faucet aerators. Place a gallon milk jug full of water inside your toilet tank. An adequate flush depends more on the fall of the water than the quantity. Displacement within the tank effectively reduces the water used for every flush. If a gallon jug is too big, try the half-gallon size instead.

Conserve electricity – Turn off the lights when leaving a room. Turn off and unplug computers, printers, televisions and other electronics when not in use. To make this task easier, plug these items into power strips and use the switch to turn them all off at once. Wash clothing in cold water and line dry. Rinse dishes under slowly running cold water if washing by hand and air-dry if using a dishwasher.

Switch to cloth napkins – Paper napkins waste valuable resources. Make your own from cloth or buy them inexpensively at a local thrift store.

Save on heating and cooling – Adjust your thermostat. Just a few degrees cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer can make a huge difference. Turn the system off when nobody is home. Change furnace filters monthly or as recommended. Use ceiling or portable fans to circulate air, reducing the need for additional heating and cooling.

These are just a few ideas to get you started. Be on the lookout for other ways to make your home more eco friendly!

source:-articlebase.com

Healthy Living

2009-09-30T10:14:00.000-07:00

Is living clean and green difficult? Well, it can be a little difficult when you are not completely sure how to go about doing it. Some may assume that living green is a complex or difficult process. In the past, it was tough to live green. Other than keeping your energy expenditures down and replacing inefficient appliances, there was little a person could do. Those with significant budgets could procure solar panels for the home. Today, solar panels are not a luxury as they have come down greatly in price. And, thankfully, there are scores of other minor methods that can help improve your home's ability to go green. Some of these other methods are well worth exploring.

For example, did you know that there are organic cleaning agents that can replace many of the traditional chemical detergents that are commonly available on the market? These detergents are made with natural products that do not deliver the problematic fumes that can make the interior of a home unsafe. And, most damaging to the environment is the release of these chemicals into the environment when they are washed down the drain. The impact of such weak disposal on the environment can be significantly enormous. Through using biodegradable and natural detergents, this negative impact will be completely eliminated. These natural detergents are also no where near as expensive as some assume which makes them quite accessible to a variety of budgets.

Sometimes, taking a few basic simple steps is all that is needed to enhance the ability of a home to go green. Purchasing incandescent light bulbs is another simple method for reducing your home's proverbial carbon footprint. Such light bulbs use far less electricity than the traditional light bulb and last much longer. In addition to helping the environment, these light bulbs also help keep you home budget in check!

Then, there is the most common means of making sure a home is green: recycling. Recycling is significantly important to preserving the environment because it is able to reduce a number of problems associated with environmental depletion. Paper, as most are well aware, derives from trees. When you recycle something as basic as a newspaper, you are eliminating the need to need to cut down trees for future paper production. Recycling plastics is something many people will take part in although they may not be completely sure how this improves the environment. The reason it is so helpful is because plastic derives from petroleum which requires oil to product. By recycling plastic, you are reducing the need to deplete oil reserves. This helps keep the environment clean and keeps the price of a barrel of oil low.

Yes, the steps one can take to ensure a home is properly green are no where near as tough as some assume. Simply taking a few basic steps will certainly deliver the results needed to turn your home into an environmentally
sound abode. Yes, if you want to contribute to the environment, you can do something about in a rather easy to achieve manner.

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Green Marketing and Ethical Issues

2009-09-30T10:13:00.001-07:00

Green Marketing and Ethical Issues

INTRODUCTION

The marketer need to know about what is the relevance of Social Marketing in order to protect the environment and to improve the quality of life and are concerned with issues that include conservation of natural resources, reducing environmental pollution, protecting endangered species, and control of land use. Many companies are finding that consumers are willing to pay more for a green product. The last three decades have seen a progressive increase in worldwide environmental consciousness. This has been driven by a number of factors from increased media coverage to rising evidence of environmental problems such as the depletion of the ozone layer, acidification of rivers and forest degradation, global warming, the rise of pressure group activity, tougher legislation and major industrial disasters. Concern has moved from the local scale to a national and increasingly global scale.

The rate of environmental degradation has intensified. The nineteenth century brought the first large scale pollution as companies geared themselves to produce goods as fast as possible, with virtual disregard for human or environmental well-being. Nations battled for industrial supremacy using raw materials and creating pollution at a staggering rate. As countries became economically stronger, competition also grew. More efficient production methods were employed, and few companies, if any, gave a thought to the impact they were having on their surroundings. With the increase in water pollution from the chemical works, and air pollution from the iron and steel industry, towns and cities began to pay the price for high industrial productivity.

Ass the 1980s progressed, it became increasingly clear that, although the starkest predictions of resource depletion and population explosion had failed to materialize, all was far from well with the planet. A number of published analyses of the environment showed that according to a wide range of indicators, the environment was coming under increasing stress. Concern among consumers and the electorate began to mount, with the inevitable consequence being that environmental issues moved from the fringes to the center of the business and political agenda.

The environment’s role in business is profoundly obvious, but easy to overlook. It provides every business with its inputs, and a destination for all its outputs. It also provides the business with the physical space within which its operations occur. For businesses dealing directly with environmental resources, such as agriculture, tourism or oil, the importance of the physical environment has always been apparent. Society in its present form and on its current trajectory of development, however, cannot be sustained indefinitely. The physical environment has limited resources and limited capacity to absorb pollution and waste. The underlying cause of society’s current unsustainability relates to the way in which economics and technology have come to dominate our thinking about business and the environment. Conventional marketing within industry is very much a product of this techno-economic perspective. This has created a ‘grey’ culture which is not sustainable and is therefore terminal. To transform this into a ‘green’ sustainable culture, there is a need to balance consideration of the economic and technical impacts and aspects of businesses with understanding of their social and physical implications.

It is now widely accepted that societies, economies, and the businesses within them need to find a more sustainable path to for future development. In the business world the vocabulary of management was suddenly expanded by the discussion of ‘green consumers’, ‘green markets’ and ‘green products’ and the practice of ‘environmental’ or ‘green marketing’. For majority of the companies improving environmental performance has, until recently, been a question of legislative compliance and occasional reactions to external events and pressures. It has only been companies in the front-line sectors such as oil, chemicals, power and cars that have gone beyond a reactive and tactical approach to green issues. However, by early 1990s a shift away from a technical-compliance oriented approach towards a more proactive green strategy orientation was noticed. Companies were increasingly pursuing competitive advantage and product differentiation by increasing investment in environmental marketing, green design and improving overall corporate eco-performance. In addition to these externally motivated changes, the realization is dawning within industry that sustainability will not be reached simply by demand-pull from the market and compliance-push from the regulators. The changes that are needed to safeguard the future of the environment and the economy must partly be driven from the business community, which means they must proactively integrate eco-performance into the strategies, systems and cultures of the organization.

Eg: Toyota has become quite successful with their hybrid cars.

The three R s of environmentalism are:

Reduce

Reuse and

Recycle.

Green marketing refers to the development and distribution of ecologically-safe products. It refers to products and packages that have one or more of the following characteristics:

(1) Are less toxic

(2) Are more durable

(3) Contain reusable materials

(4) Are made of recyclable material. In short, these are products considered “environmentally responsible”.

In the early to mid 1960s created concern about the social responsibility of businesses and their impact on the natural environment and the health and welfare of the planet. This concern was heightened during the early 1970s in response to Limits to Growth and resulted in the emergence of both the ‘societal marketing concept’ and the ‘ecological marketing concept’. In response to the new green challenge that emerged during the early 1980s, these early concepts have amalgamated to create an environmental marketing concept. Green marketing is thus a form of socio-ecological marketing whereby the goods and services sold, and the marketing practices involved in their sale take into account the environmental ramifications of society as a whole. The marketing process essentially involves matching the controllable internal variables of the marketing mix with the demands of the marketing environment. Environmental marketing is no different, in principle, although the internal variables and external demands that must be reconciled are a little different.

Green marketing takes account of the wider relationship of the organization and its products to the surroundings. It is about a more aware, open, targeted and sensitive approach that integrates the strategic link between the company, the environment, and marketing, rather than being primarily concerned with tactical communications opportunities. The prime emphasis is on, developing relationships and satisfying separate Stakeholders needs in an environmentally and socially responsible manner. The key stakeholders are customers, investors, parent company, directors, employees, the community, legislators, pressure groups, suppliers, and the media

Green marketing differs from its societal and ecological predecessors in it’s intertwining of ecological and social concerns, in the breadth of the ecological agenda that it tackles, and in its potential application across all types and sectors of business. Green marketing goes beyond societal marketing in four key ways:

It is an open-ended rather than a long-term perspective.

* It focuses more strongly on the natural environment.
* It treats the environment as something which has an intrinsic value over and above its usefulness to society.
* It focuses on global concerns rather than those of particular societies.

The key elements of green marketing can be summarised as under:

* A balanced approach to the social, technological, economic and physical aspects of businesses and societies.
* An emphasis on long term sustainable qualitative development rather than short-term unsustainable quantitative growth.
* A holistic approach aimed at reversing the reductionalist and fragmented approach of previous business theory and practice.
* A consideration of consumers as real human beings rather than as hypothetical ‘rational economic’entities.
* An emphasis on meeting the genuine needs of consumers, rather than on stimulating superficial desires.
* A recognition that consumers and society have multiple and sometimes conflicting wants and needs.
* A view of the company and all its activities as part of the ‘product’ that is consumed.
* A recognition that the large scale long distance nature of the current economy is not sustainable, and that in the future small and local will be beautiful.
* Embracing the concept of eco-performance which incorporates the non-market outputs of the company, with performance of the product during and after use and the environmental impact of companies which contribute to the creation and marketing of the product elsewhere in the supply chain.
* The pursuit of added socio-environmental value as well as added techno-economic value.

source:-articlebase.com

Green living

2009-09-30T10:12:00.001-07:00

Green living
is easier said than done. There are many facets to green living that need to be considered before you can do a radical change of your approach to life. First, you need to realize that green living is not just leaving your car at home occasionally once in a week and taking public transportation instead. There is a lot more to it than that. When you attempt the goal of green living, you are making a stand and demanding that the foods that you eat are healthy and free of pesticides, the clothes that you wear is not contaminated, and the water that you drink is free of chlorine.

In addition to this, green living requires lowering the amount of energy that your equipment consume, embracing solar power, and changing your way of life so that you do not damage the environment. If you own your own home, this can call for some costly changes. Your old top loading washing machine would need substituted by a machine that wastes much less water and electricity. If you live in a sunny area, you would need to take advantage of your roof space to install solar panels. Obviously, green living can be done cheaply. Nonetheless, for the serious individual, there is quite a lot of planning and changes involved in making a home environmentally friendly.

Green living can affect making changes to the cleaning products you use as well. Cleaning materials are one of the topmost sources of pollutants made from a home. Spray tins add fumes to the air, liquid mixtures add chemicals to the water that is flushed down the toilet or sink. The chemicals wiped onto paper towels end up in landfills, which then contaminate the water and soil near the trash dumps. By changing the cleaning products you use, you can drastically lower the amount of harm that is done to the environment. The more biodegradable items you purchase and use, the nearer to a state of green living you achieve.

Having a green home is not the only thing that you can do to aid the environment. Purchase products that are attested as doing little damage to the environment when they were made. Purchase cleaning supplies that are biodegradable and do not cause long term harm to the waterways and the life that lives in those waters. Do not buy products that harm the environment. If you do your part by owning a green home, you can be a living example that it can be done without sacrificing comfort and ease of living.

There are other many elementary things that you can do that won't cost you much, or any, money and allow you to start a green living way of life. Recycle everything you can and throw away as little as possible. Purchase foods that do not have excessive packaging. There are many butcheries and fruit markets that use recyclable wrap when selling their goods. Drive your motor vehicle less and learn about how the choices you make in your life affect the environment.

source:-articlebase.com

Go Green

2009-09-30T10:04:00.001-07:00

This Life Choice is Not for Everyone

I do not what anyone reading this to think that I have personally gone completely green. In the past few years I have tried to go greener, but by no means do I want you thinking that I have adopted this life style. Many of the ideas and tips set down in this article I do currently live by, however, it takes a very special individual to make this kind of a concerted effort of commitment. I can only assume that you are researching it to either improve your current green efforts, or to find out what it will take to completely go green. There are so many things we must do other than recycling and change your light bulbs to the fluorescent kind. To help you with this decision I have broken going green or environmental living into four major parts. If you can make these changes in your life style, along with your recycling and other noble efforts, you will be well on your way to completely going green. As I see it, these are the four major categories.

1. Renewable Energy: Residential solar and wind power cannot only help save the planet, but thousands of dollars in utility company cost. Many chose to go off grid, and still other’s actually make money by selling energy back to the utilities.

2.Car Conversion: There are several choices available when converting your car to be green. Bio-fuel, electric, and HHO technology are your options.

3. No More Chemicals: Completely rid yourself and your family of all products that have any chemicals in them. This includes cleaning products and detergents, bath and beauty products, and pets products.

4. Eat All Natural and Organic Foods: This is hard unless you can afford to pay the higher prices or you live on a farm. The best way to go about it is to first grow an organic garden, than take the money you are saving to buy all naturally fed meat and poultry.

Do-It-Yourself and Save

Do Only What You Can Accomplish for You
We are told that we all must do our part. You hear this all the time. The plain truth of the matter is that we can only do what we can do. Each one of the fore mentioned categories will help save the planet, as well as your families health and financial well being. There are resources I have found that will make any desired transition much mor affordable and easier than you might imagine.

1. Solar is a much better option for residential installation than wind power is. If at all possible, especially in windy areas, both forms of renewable energy are preferred. Besides the obvious reason for considering solar, the fact that it is a renewable non- polluting source of energy, you should also know that it has no moving parts to break down, and requires very little maintenance. Another very important aspect is that contrary to most contractors’ misconception it is not a difficult installation. For those of you who live or are considering living in extremely remote or rural areas if electricity is available it is usually expensive. In those cases solar power is undoubtedly the right way to go. However, even in areas where power lines are nearby, solar may still be a viable alternative to being connected to a power company. An average home has more than enough roof area to produce enough solar electricity to supply all of its power needs. All that is needed is an inverter, which converts direct current (DC) power from the solar cells to alternating current (AC), which are what most home appliances run on. A solar home, except for the obvious changes to the roof, will look and operate just like any home does when it was connected to the power line.

Small wind turbines are designed for individual homes, farms, and small businesses, and are electric generators that utilize wind energy to produce clean, emissions-free renewable power. They are defined as having rated capacities of up to 100 kilowatts. So if you were thinking that one wind generator will power your house, I’m sorry but it won’t. Keep in mind that the wind turbine is simply a collector just like a solar panel is. In this case the collector is the spinning rotor, made up of a number of blades that rotate to turn the electrical generator. Small blades result in a small rotor diameter, which translates into a small collector area, which further translates into small amounts of generated electricity.

2. Car conversion has become primarily a grass roots movement in recent years. There is a major difference between bio-fuels and bio-diesel. The main difference is that bio-diesel with little or no modification needed, can only be used in diesel engines. It is made from soybeans and can be used in its pure form, but it is usually mixed with standard diesel fuel. They do have a few very important aspects that are alike however. Bio-fuels, such as ethanol are made from corn and other crops. Like bio-diesel, bio-fuels are not only stemming the tide of global warming but helping support American agriculture. You can’t just dump a few gallons of vegetable oil in your tank however. You will ruin your engine. The conversion is grassroots technology, and for the most part a do- it- yourself process. Although the government seems to be behind it in theory, I wouldn’t go changing over until you investigate it thoroughly. If you are interested in learning more about homemade bio-diesel however, there is a source.

Electric cars. Wow, how about that Tesla Motors. If you haven’t yet seen what their coming out with next year, it is amazing. The Model S is Beautiful, 250-300 mile range, and 0-60mph in less than six seconds. I think that most of us don’t have the $50k asking price however. Most of the manufacturers of electric cars just don’t get it. They expect that to save the planet we will put up with 50 mile range before having to recharge, and a speed of 60mph. Well, there are some do- it -yourselfer’s that claim their conversion will give you 100 mile range, and it only cost a few hundred dollars. I think that if you are someone that does not drive on the highways often, an electric car might be perfect. In addition the government will give you a tax credit for driving a clean fuel vehicle.

Although hydrogen cells are what most experts claim to be the fuel of the future, I have found a grassroots movement that uses
water as fuel today. You will still have to take the occasional trip to the gas pump, because water is supplemental to your gas or diesel fuel, and 100% water cars are still on the drawing board. Moreover, extracting energy from water to double or triple your fuel economy is VERY EASY. This is not new technology. People have been using water to gas converters in vehicles for years. This is proven technology. Using a simple device, you can use the electricity from your battery to separate water (H2O) into a gas known as HHO. HHO is two parts’ Hydrogen and one part Oxygen. HHO is a supercharged gas that burns effectively and produces significant energy, greatly improving your fuel economy. Incredibly, the waste product is water! The green car of the future just might be sitting in your driveway. Because the hydrogen is produced On-Demand, this technology is perfectly safe for you and your passengers. Imagine going from 20-25 mpg, to 50-60 mpg or more, and at the same time reducing your carbon foot print.

This Organic Tomato Came From My Garden

No More Chemicals in My House
3. Imagine a home with zero chemicals. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the air we breathe inside our homes could be as much as five times as polluted as the air outside. These cleaning products expose you and your family to chemicals that could be more harmful than the germs they are trying to rid you of. Other studies have shown that the average American will, flush down the toilet, wash down a sink, or place in the garbage, more than 20 gallons of toxic and hazardous chemical products. It is all right to be conscientious about recycling or energy consumption, but think about the potential for affecting the health of people, plants, animals, land and water because of this waste.

If all of this seems overwhelming to you, do not threat because you can have all the information you and your family needs to end your dependence on chemicals. Zero Chemicals- Chemical Free Living is a two-volume guide to chemical free-living options. You can use it to go completely without chemicals, or just choose what you feel is right for your circumstance. For every chemically based product, there is an equally effective and totally safe natural alternative. And the amazing thing is that you will actually save money with this method. With your new home environment you will see a change in everyone. They will feel a boost to their immune system, an energy explosion, and generally an improvement to their overall health.

4. The First Lady has made planting and growing your own garden, fashionable again. After years of eating supermarket food and other fast foods your body begins to store all of the toxins and chemicals. These toxins can affect your body in many ways. I will say that, for my wife and me, the last two years of having our own garden have been not only extremely healthy but fun and mouth watering, as well. I had no idea that there is a system to growing a backyard garden, which entailed more than simply planting a bunch of seeds, watering and weeding. We struggled for a few years before we discovered the secret to growing an organic garden. I am sure that we are healthier for it. However, the taste is extraordinary, and, I promise, will be the first thing you notice.

I wish that we knew what we know now the first garden we planted. There is indeed a correct way of doing anything, and planting seeds is no exception. For example, I had no idea that the soil needs to be properly prepared, and that there are organic fertilizers that should be used. There are many dangers you should be aware of, including what exactly should be done with those pesky weeds. I found everything we needed to know in a guide quite appropriately named, My Organic Food Garden. Absolutely everything you need to know about organic gardening at home can be found in this guide. This book was written so that the absolute beginner can setup a professional quality garden without the headaches.

source:-articlebase.com

Go Green

2009-09-30T10:04:00.000-07:00

Global Warming Crisis

2009-09-29T04:32:00.001-07:00

Global warming is one, if not the most discussed concerns of our contemporary society. In fact, it has engendered protracted debates between and among our top scientists, whose differing theories seek to unravel not only the real causes but also certain viable solutions which can be framed to address it. If only to cite, two schools of thought emerge from these heated discussions. On the one side of the spectrum, one group of scientist-thinkers claims that the rapid increase of carbon dioxide emission, owing much from the exponential growth of industries of the post war era, is the chief cause of the present global warming crisis. By contrast, another group that which strongly disagrees with the aforesaid stance maintains that global warming is not really attributable to an increased carbon dioxide emission as it is to due to the inevitability of the earth’s natural processes of cyclic heating and cooling within a given span of time.

Thus, while it is agreed that the globe is in fact warming, I believe carbon dioxide is not the underlying reason behind it. This paper makes a case for the necessity of continuing studies as regards to the matter, as I am more inclined to believe that, based on my readings, carbon dioxide emission does not constitute the real cause of global warming, if by ‘cause’ we take to mean that the increased production of carbon dioxide acts as the sufficient explanation of global warming, let alone its sole mitigating factor. The stance which this paper takes is a somewhat critical to the more popular understanding of global warming crisis; i.e. this paper is specifically critical to Al Gore, along with some 2,500 scientist who work at the IPCC (The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and roughly about 86% of American citizens, who summarily hold that global warming is a problem brought about by human doing. This paper seeks to underscore the incurable ambiguities which mark the contention that global warming is entirely due to the increased incidence of greenhouse concentrations, which in itself is nothing but the consequential result of the perceived increase of carbon dioxide emissions.

Carbon Dioxide Emission as Causative Ingredient to Global Warming?

As previously mentioned, there are many scientists who claim that the current state of the industrial societies is a key determining factor that aggravates the noticeable increase of world atmospheric and marine temperatures. Crucial to this is to cite that world economies’ heavy dependence on fossil fuels, which in turn leads to excessive carbon dioxide emission, is responsible for the increased incidence of greenhouse effect being experienced the world over. For instance, Homer-Dixon, the author of the book The upside of Down: Catastrophe, Creativity, and the Renewal of Civilization he cites that “concentration of greenhouse gases are increasing fast and the earth is getting hotter” (Homer-Dixon 162). And it, in fact, is not hard to establish that there is a direct correlation existing between the increasing world temperature and the equally rapid increase of carbon dioxide emission recorded in as many years. One only needs to show that many studies, such as the one published by the Environmental Protection Agency, rely on arguing the fact that carbon dioxide discharge and the world’s atmospheric temperatures have risen “by over 35% since the rise of Industrialization” so to make a convenient conclusion that it is the primary cause of global warming(Carbon Dioxide, 2008).

The EPA’s argument is relevant in the discussion since it brings into the fore the tendency of many organizations to take carbon dioxide and global warming under the lenses of cause-effect model. In many respects, this is likewise the crux of the arguments espoused by the Kyoto Protocol – an international environmental accord sanctioned by the United Nations, aimed at decreasing world production of greenhouse gases. According to the agreement, world governments acceding to such an accord must ensure that steps are undertaken to cut their respective carbon dioxide emissions “below the range” which can be devastating to nature (Kyoto Protocol). This, moreover, is also the assumption of those who are advocating the use of nuclear power as an alternative to fossil fuels. According to Max Schulz who is the writer of the article Nuclear Power, explains that the world needs to discover viable sources of energy through “clean technology”… “without pollution or greenhouse gas emissions (Schulz 90). Herein, it would be necessary to note that the reasoned premise of the Kyoto Protocol and arguments for nuclear power rests on the plain assumption that there exists a direct cause-and-effect correlation between carbon dioxide production and rapid increase of world atmospheric temperatures. Which is why, these arguments tend to regard global warming as anthropogenic in essence – i.e., it is a phenomenon brought about by human doing.

That having said, there are still reasons to think that no one can really stop the continued warming of the world. Not even the Kyoto Protocol – an already massive initiative, to say the least, taken by humanity to address the problem – dares to dream of averting the rise of world temperatures all together. As indeed, our optimum technologies nowadays have yet to frame adequate solutions to curb the rate of global warming. If this perceived helplessness in respect to global warming speaks of anything about our present situation, it merely proves that there is more into the problem than merely attributing it to human doing. This is because if global warming is really a problem constituted by human fault, then it is with human initiatives that such problem can and must be remedied. Apparently however, human progress cannot be blamed for the recent rising trends of global temperatures.

Global Warming as the Earth’s Natural Way of Being

While it may be easy to establish the correlation between the amounts of carbon dioxide emitted in the last 50 years and the rise of world temperatures, it is nevertheless difficult to construe a necessary cause-and-effect connection between them. For say that carbon dioxide alone is the sufficient explanation to global warming means that we are reducing the problem into a single cause; and this must not be so. In Homer-Dixon’s book he cites a quote from Michel Jarraud who is the secretary general of the United Nations World Meteorological Organization. Michael Jarraud contends,

“You cannot attribute (global warming) to a single cause. It’s about the very complex interaction between all the elements that make up the very complex machine that is the Earth…But global warming is likely to lead to more frequent extraordinary events and greater intensity of these events” (Homer-Dixon 162).

In the first place, global warming should be seen as a natural process or occurrence, or a phenomenon not generated by human activities. In fact, global warming happens periodically; as this was proven by Petr Chylek who is the Professor of Physics and Atmospheric Science. For instance, in his report, he maintains that during the 1920’s, Greenland’s temperature was recorded higher than it was during many instances 2005. With such telling evidence, he concludes that, “the Greenland warming of 1920 to 1930 demonstrates that a high concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases is not a necessary condition for period of warming to arise” (Chylek). The same may be said of the trend which shows that during the period of 1900-1940, the temperatures were rising even when industrialization was not as massive compare to what we have now. After this era, the Post-War economic boom was to commence. Ironically, this was the period when the temperature dropped and did not begin to rise until four decades later. Besides, one must also note with care that the past 150 years have seen a very minute increase in world temperature – only half a degree Celsius. If with the massive production of carbon dioxide the rate of world temperature increase does not appear to be so drastic, then it is evident that carbon dioxide is not the sole cause of global warming.

Secondly, where carbon dioxide is in question, it is certainly insightful to note that human activities do not really generate as much carbon dioxide emission as does nature itself, when it produces the carbon dioxide in manner being more significant, if not undeniably massive. This is certainly an interesting angle to look at; for while we agree to a certain respect that carbon dioxide is a heat-generating compound in the atmosphere, it nevertheless is just one of the many gaseous compounds comprising greenhouse gases. As such, carbon dioxide comprises a meager 0.97% of the total greenhouse gasses present in the air (USA TODAY). Moreover, human activities are not to sole progenitor of carbon dioxide. The earth’s land surface, it must be noted, emits carbon dioxide as well. For instance, when a volcanic eruption occurs, the earth produces more carbon dioxide than the amount produced by industrial factories around the world, and certainly more than the amount of the same emitted by human beings. This is to speak only of the earth’s terrestrial surface, which is roughly about 30% of the world’s surface area. The largest emitter of carbon dioxide is by the larger marine surface, as it makes up the remaining 70% of our world’s geographical composition. Thus, humanity must not be the one to be blamed for the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere right now. Besides, on account of the fact that carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is insignificant, there is a truth in saying that carbon is not the sole reason that explains global warming.

Thirdly, not only must people start to realize that global warming is a phenomenon that happens on a natural basis, they too must take into careful account the significant role which solar radiation plays in ushering the world into another phase of warmer temperatures. In other words, the warming of the earth is in fact believed to be caused by the sun. This is exactly the contention leveled by Jeffrey Gordon in his book called Solar Energy: The State of the Art. He contends that solar energy acts as the major contributor to the warming of the earth. This is because he believes that “urban temperature and the sky view” manifest a direct correlation (Gordon 14). To briefly explain, Gordon believes that cloud formation in the sky is influenced by the amount of solar radiation being emitted by the sun. Ordinarily, we speak of cloud formation as a phenomenon explicable by the rate of evaporation and condensation of water vapor transpiring in the earth’s atmosphere (The World Book Encyclopedia 111). But, Gordon believes that cosmic rays are the actual reason behind the formation of clouds – i.e., sun rays play a role in the formation of clouds. Therefore, if clouds are generated by cosmic rays, and that they absorb and reflect solar radiation, which in turn make the earth’s surface cool or warm according to the cloud density, then it is with good reasons to claim that global warming is indeed caused by natural processes and not by human doing.

Still, there is a need to further underscore the fact that many doomsday prophecies in respect to the true state of the earth appear to be patently exaggerated, if not wholly unfounded as well. A glaring example would be to cite how scientists from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change came up with analyses and reports accentuating the correlation between the earth’s temperatures on the one hand and the levels of carbon dioxide on the other hand. This, we might as well be reminded, is in itself an indication of correlation but not of necessary connection, as argued hereinabove. Unfortunately, these scientists argued that, using the temperature-carbon dioxide correlation, the warming globe would be a precursor to a significant rise in sea levels within the next one hundred years. And by further claiming that sea levels are expected to rise at least twenty feet above the present level, these scientist warn of extensive flooding, reduction of earth’s land surface, and all sorts of natural disasters.

We need to point out, however, that this claim is at the very least preposterous. This is for the plain reason that, according to the recent studies shown in a BBC documentary called ‘The Global Warming Swindle’, it would take another 1000 years to have our sea level to rise dramatically by twenty feet, or less (Scott). Hardly over, another example pertinent to some scientists’ tendency to proffer unfounded studies comes through research by Thomas Knutson of the NOAA’s Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory. According to him, “a greenhouse gas-induced warming may lead to a gradually increasing risk in the occurrence of highly destructive category-5 storms” (Knutson 16). Another scientist from the IPCC agrees with Knutson, and even further researched on this case and concluded that we are on the way to another ice age. Once again, the extremities palpable in their conclusions make their claims highly dubitable. At the very least, we need to inquire why scientists arrive at differing conclusions – i.e., one speaks of catastrophic hurricanes, yet another prophesies a looming ice-age – using the same climate model as evidence. We have reasons to believe that these scientists have deliberately pushed their interpretation beyond what their evidences imply. And reason behind this, we might as well surmise, lies in the need to attract the public attention at the expense of portraying the truth of the matter regarding the state of our nature.

Providing evidence for this case, the authors J. Timmons Roberts and Bradley C. Parks in their book, ‘A Climate of Injustice: Global Inequality, North-South Politics, and Climate Policy’ would most likely support my case. Roberts and Parks cite that, “Though it would be impossible to say that any single hurricane was caused by global warming, the increase in air and water temperatures has undoubtedly increased the evaporation and energy in the climate system.” This phrase is so significant because it disproves that global warming is the trigger towards storms. It also shows that the increasing carbon dioxide has no correlation towards rising temperature, inasmuch as it is mainly evaporation and energy that affect climate.

Finally, it is imperative to note that many scientists’ tendency to lopsidedly zero in on construing doomsday leaves no room for appreciating the positive ramifications of global warming. During the course of my research, I realized that there are those who say that a warmer globe does not necessarily spell doom for humanity. On the contrary, it may even be beneficial for us. Bruce E. Johansen in his book The Global Warming: Desk Reference for instance contends, “a slight rise in temperatures and carbon dioxide levels would stimulate the growth of many plants” (Johansen 105). This is because the plants will more largely absorb carbon dioxide when there is more of it. Moreover, this proves that the earth’s natural cycle is on course, and that there is no need to unnecessarily incite panic from among the greater public. The earth will learn and adapt to climate changes as much as humans, and every other animal, would.

With the evidence from many studies from authors such as John Christian, Roy Spencer and many listed above, I confidently believe that carbon dioxide is not the reason behind global warming. Maybe our media is so influenced by our political leaders today that many of us follow behind them into believing that carbon dioxide is causing the warming of the earth. Why do they want us to believe this? My theory is when politics wants to be involved in any issue; their main concern is to search for benefits. So what is the solution behind global warming? There may seem like there is no solution but ultimately the solution is for the selfish to become unselfish for the selfish reason. If carbon dioxide is the real cause of global warming, our governments should use more of their money to create better ways of transportation rather than gain income from the warming. Transportation infrastructure includes more biking routes, bus stops, underground trains etc. This is proven to work as European countries implement it into their infrastructure. Thus, if global warming is a natural cycle, then we cannot do anything but to use more of the governments’ income to invest in other ways of living as global warming comes closer each day.

By way of conclusion, I wish to end with a thought which affirms the central roadmap and chief contention of this paper – i.e., the debate about global warming cannot be laid to rest, so long as the entire truth about the matter is not fully unraveled. Right now, the world is fed with much-publicized but too-often-pessimistic views about the ill-effects of global warming. And much too often, these supposed scientific studies pin the blame on human beings and their otherwise magnificent activities and achievements. This, I believe, is rather unfair. In the discussions that were developed, it was seen that there is more into global warming than merely attributing it to carbon dioxide emissions of the last few decades, and the increased concentration of greenhouse gasses observed in the present times. In the final analysis, we have to admit that the earth’s climate has always been changing. And as we have been through cold and warm periods, we must appreciate the fact that nearly all living species have found, in ways more than one, their respective ways of surviving. Certainly, the debate is far from being over.

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Environmental Issues

2009-09-29T04:30:00.002-07:00

There's an old saying that we only are renting the world for a little while from its true owners – our children. This can help remind us that the choices we make today about our lifestyles and our consumer habits can directly impact many future generations. We can help our children by not only bringing up topics to talk about in environmental issues, but also lead by example.

Easy Green Tips for Protecting Groundwater

Although the average human being can last up to three months without food, it can only last three days without water. Climate change and unwise uses of water supplies have lead to massive droughts in Australia, Europe and North America. For example, Spain decided to cater to the tourist industry by building many golf courses. Unfortunately, grass golf courses require lots of water in order to maintain. Spain now is in the midst of its worst drought in recorded history.

Certainly by now you know about conserving water as much as possible. But you also need to protect the water we have left. Much of the drinking water supply comes from groundwater, which (as its name implies) means that it's located just underneath the ground. Because it's just under the ground means that it's very easy to contaminate.

The best thing you can do to protect groundwater is not to dump harmful chemicals into it. But you don’t do that, you say. Oh, do you really Do you add fertilizers and insecticides to your lawn Those wash off easily and sink into the groundwater. And what about the cleaners and washing detergents you use Many of these harsh chemicals are destroying groundwater.

Use only a fraction of the recommended amount of laundry detergent. You'll still get the clothes clean but without dumping so many chemicals in the groundwater. Better yet, use environmentally safe cleaning products made of botanical oils, bleach or vinegar. Look for a label showing the word with the words Design for the Environment U. S. EPA on it.

Instead of using chemical foam drain cleaners, use a couple of cups of baking soda and a kettle full of boiling water. It may take longer to work than a foam or liquid commercially made pipe cleaner, but it won’t harm your pipes, the groundwater or your kids.

Polluting Yourself

There's no sense talking to your kids about environmental issues if you do not treat your own body with respect. You may not think that your body has anything to do with the environment, but it does. The way you treat yourself is often subconsciously reflected in the way we treat the environment.

Kids can easily recognise hypocrites. They'll nod in agreement with you only to please you but then ignore all of your advice and teachings if they think you are a hypocrite. There's no sense preaching green tips if you drink, abuse drugs or smoke. Abusing alcohol, drugs and tobacco not only harms your body but also harms the environment.

How does smoking affect the environment? There are different facts on smoking. Most of them tackle our health. But guess what the most prominently kind of trash is found on beaches all over the world lighters, cigarettes, matches and tobacco pouches. Tobacco is poisonous to many creatures such as small dogs that can die from eating a few cigarettes.

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Chemical Free Living for Life

2009-09-29T04:30:00.001-07:00

I can remember back when the experts said aerosol cans were ripping a hole in the ozone layer. Many of these cans have been replaced by squirt bottles that seem to stop working, when there is still a quarter of the liquid chemical remaining. The point is, we are still using the chemicals. Recent studies prove those cleaning products are hazardous to our health. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the air we breathe inside our homes could be as much as five times as polluted as the air outside. These cleaning products expose you and your family to chemicals that could be more harmful than the germs they are trying to rid you of. Other studies have shown that the average American will, flush down the toilet, wash down a sink, or place in the garbage, more than 20 gallons of toxic and hazardous chemical products. It is all right to be conscientious about recycling or energy consumption, but think about the potential for affecting the health of people, plants, animals, land and water because of this waste. Believe me when I say, I am not trying to scare, but merely inform. Of the roughly 17,000 chemicals found in common household products, only 3 in 10 have been tested for their effects on human health.

The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, the agency responsible for the safety of consumers, does not require manufacturers to test household cleaning products before they appear on store shelves. So we as the consumer must rely on the label to get any pertinent information about safety and health hazards. They are only required to provide hazard symbols, such as "poison" and "flammable," and must give information about first aid treatments for those ingredients. Marketing and advertising gimmicks are not proof of the safety of the household products. It is their function to come up with words and phrases that will promote their product. So words like “natural” don’t have anything to do with the safety of the product, and phrases like “eco-friendly, and “environmentally safe” have no real meaning, other than to sell their products to unsuspecting consumers who only bother to read the pretty part of the label.

Your Own Chemical Warfare

A Few Tips to Fight Back
There are things you can do immediately to stem this chemical tide. For the next time you go shopping, here are a few green tips that will help you and the planet to a healthier future.

1. If a product is making cleaning too easy there might be a reason for it. If you are not using any elbow grease, you should be a little weary. Chemicals from these cleaning products have been known to emit fumes even while being stored.

2. Remember those aerosol cans are still around. People who use air fresheners in excess should know that they contain synthetic fragrances, whose chemical make up has been linked to cancer in rodents.

3.Most dish and detergent soaps are made from petroleum, a nonrenewable synthetic resource, another good reason to go with formulas that are plant-based, biodegradable and contain no phosphates. Your fabric sheets that have “fragrance” on their label, means that they are also petroleum based.

Zero Chemicals Are Possible

Help Is Just a Click Away
If all of this seems overwhelming to you, do not threat because you can have all the information you and your family needs to end your dependence on chemicals. Zero Chemicals- Chemical Free Living is a two-volume guide to chemical free-living options. You can use it to go completely without chemicals, or just choose what you feel is right for your circumstance. For every chemically based product, there is an equally effective and totally safe natural alternative
. And the amazing thing is that you will actually save money with this method. With your new home environment you will see a change in everyone. They will feel a boost to their immune system
, an energy explosion, and generally an improvement to their overall health.

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Going Green on WEB...

2009-09-29T04:26:00.000-07:00

When people think about going green, they often think of fuel efficient cars and reusable shopping bags. Maybe they think of carpooling to work or being sure to recycle their aluminum cans each week. However, one area that can sometimes be overlooked is the internet.

Computers and other related technology are an integrated part of American culture. However, most people do not think about all the ways in which such technology can be used to increase an eco-friendly lifestyle.

There are many things that anyone can do to help reduce waste through the power of technology, whether it be at home or at work. It is best to start small. First, consider relying on electronic files. Files are easy to transmit via email and can be backed up effectively on flash drives. If printing is necessary, use only recycled paper, perhaps even reprinting on the backside of a discarded sheet of computer paper. This can even extend to photos, which are easy to store and share online without having to print hard copies.

While using the internet and electronic files minimizes paper and ink consumption, such activities require notable energy usage. Thankfully, it is easy to manage this consumption. To start, simply turn off the computer and monitor when they are not in use. Additionally, no matter how tempting it may be, wait as long as possible to upgrade a computer, printer, or other technological device. Though newer models may have nice features, as long as the old one can get the job done, it is far greener to use the older device for longer in order to reduce the growing amount of technological waste.

Beyond a personal workspace, it is possible to start making a green shift in the business realm on a company-wide scale. For example, companies can transition from print advertising to internet options. This alternative is not only a far better choice for the planet, but can also be more effective in reaching a greater population. Companies can also pare down on hard copies, using email to provide memos and reminders to staff. These methods are extremely efficient, saving companies and employees time and money.

Two of the newest ways to be green on the web are green website hosting and soon to be .eco extensions. There are a number of website hosting providers that utilize green energy. These providers still offer the same services as standard web hosting providers, but the process is much less wasteful. The .eco movement is another powerful way to go green online. Though these extensions will not be available until later in the year, .eco extensions will be a great way for businesses, nonprofit organizations and webmasters to support environmental causes while also doing their part to make the planet a better place.

From big to small, going green on the web is an important task. Even implementing just a few of these suggestions on a daily basis can make a huge impact that will be felt for many generations to come.

source:-articlebase.com

Cetacean Conservation Center

2009-04-10T03:01:00.001-07:00

The Cetacean Conservation Center (Centro de Conservación Cetacea or CCC) is a Chilean NGO dedicated to the conservation of cetaceans and other marine mammals that inhabit the coastal waters of Chile. The CCC also engages in public education and information campaigns at the national and regional level.

Mission

Centro de Conservación Cetacea (CCC) is a Chilean non-governmental and non-profit organization that actively and effectively works on the conservation of marine mammals and their aquatic ecosystems in Chilean waters. The goals in support of this mission are:

1. Promote effective [marine conservation] and management policies.

2. Conduct management and conservation related research on cetacean species and their ecosystems, with special focus on studying endangered species.

3. Identify and assess anthropogenic impacts on marine [wildlife] and propose mitigation measures.

4. Promote the sustainable development of coastal communities through responsible marine wildlife watching activities.

5. Increase public awareness and promote the informed and active participation of people/government on marine biodiversity conservation as well as encourage the reduction of human impacts.

6. Strengthen national and international cooperation in marine conservation strategies

* History

Since 2001, Centro de Conservacion Cetacea has conducted national marine conservation projects, including a wide range of areas like scientific research, public education, coastal community development and strengthening of marine conservation policies:

“CITES CHILE 2002, Our Opportunity to Protect Life”, that reached over 140 thousand people of all the country with an educational exhibit of life size inflatable whales and sharks. As a result, the government of Chile strongly opposed proposals oriented to down list whale species from Appendix I and supported proposals oriented to include whale and basking sharks in CITES Appendix II, during the 12th Conference of the Parties of CITES conducted in Santiago de Chile.

“Southern Right Whale Project/Chile”, a project that has been conducted since 2003 with the official support of the Chilean Navy and the cooperation of leading right whale conservation organizations from Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. In 2008 the southeast Pacific population of this species was classified as critically endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Chilean Navy granted maximum level of protection to the species.

“National Marine Mammal Sighting Network”, it has work effectively thanks to the support and cooperation of the Chilean Navy and more than 500 members that actively participate in recording of cetacean sightings and stranding events along the Chilean coast.

“Alfaguara Project, Conservation of Blue Whales” It has consolidated as a scientific and coastal sustainable development project of national interest by receiving the official support of the Chilean Navy, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Education of Chile. The project has also identified the area with the highest sighting rate of blue whales in the Southern Hemisphere (northwestern Chiloé Island) and has raised international awareness regarding the health status of this blue whale population by describing skinny blue whales and skin lesions associated to coastal pollution from the salmon farming industry.

“Chile 2008, A Whale Sanctuary”, that was conducted during eight months in conjunction with Centro Ecoceanos and the National Confederation of Artisan Fishers of Chile. As a result the sanctuary was achieved in only eight months with the unanimous support by the Chilean Congress of the bill/law that bans all types of whaling operations in Chilean jurisdictional waters (EEZ) and sets the basis for consolidating a national marine conservation policy. This is the first marine protection policy adopted in Chilean history and the most important measure taken until date in the country for the effective conservation of cetacean species and their marine environment.

Carbon tax

2009-04-10T03:00:00.001-07:00

A carbon tax is an environmental tax on emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. It is an example of a pollution tax.

Carbon atoms are present in every fossil fuel (coal, petroleum, and natural gas) and are released as CO2 when they are burnt. In contrast, non-combustion energy sources—wind, sunlight, hydropower, and nuclear—do not convert hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide. Accordingly, a carbon tax is effectively a tax on the use of fossil fuels, and only fossil fuels. Some schemes also include other greenhouse gases; the global warming potential is an internationally accepted scale of equivalence for other greenhouse gases in units of tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent.

Because of the link with global warming, a carbon tax is sometimes assumed to require an internationally administered scheme. However, that is not intrinsic to the principle. The European Union considered a carbon tax covering its member states prior to starting its emissions trading scheme in 2005. The UK has unilaterally introduced a range of carbon taxes and levies to accompany the EU ETS trading regime. Note that emissions trading systems do not constitute a Pigovian tax, because they entail the creation of a property right.

The purpose of a carbon tax is to protect the environment by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and thereby slow climate change. It can be implemented by taxing the burning of fossil fuels—coal, petroleum products such as gasoline and aviation fuel, and natural gas—in proportion to their carbon content. Unlike other approaches such as carbon cap-and-trade systems, direct taxation has the benefit of being easily understood and can be popular with the public if the revenue from the tax is returned by reducing other taxes. Alternatively, it may be used to fund environmental projects.

Background

In economic theory, pollution is considered a negative externality because it has a negative effect on a party not directly involved in a transaction. To confront parties with the issue, the economist Arthur Pigou proposed taxing the goods (in this case fossil fuels) which were the source of the negative externality (carbon dioxide) so as to accurately reflect the cost of the goods' production to society, thereby internalizing the costs associated with the goods' production. A tax on a negative externality is termed a Pigovian tax, and should equal the marginal damage costs.

A carbon tax is an indirect tax—a tax on a transaction—as opposed to a direct tax, which taxes income. As a result, some American conservatives have supported such a carbon tax because it taxes at a fixed rate, independent of income, which complements their support of a flat tax.

Prices of carbon (fossil) fuels are expected to continue increasing as more countries industrialize and add to the demand on fuel supplies. In addition to creating incentives for energy conservation, a carbon tax would put renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and geothermal on a more competitive footing, stimulating their growth. Former Federal Reserve chairman Paul Volcker suggested (February 6, 2007) that "it would be wiser to impose a tax on oil, for example, than to wait for the market to drive up oil prices."

Social cost of carbon

Many estimates of aggregate net economic costs of damages and benefits from climate change across the globe, the social cost of carbon (SCC), expressed in terms of future net benefits and costs that are discounted to the present, are now available. Peer-reviewed estimates of the SCC for 2005 have an average value of US$43 per tonne of carbon (tC) (i.e., US$12 per tonne of carbon dioxide) but the range around this mean is large. For example, in a survey of 100 estimates, the values ran from US$–10 per tonne of carbon (US$–3 per tonne of carbon dioxide) up to US$350/tC (US$95 per tonne of carbon dioxide.)

One must be very careful when comparing weights of carbon versus carbon dioxide, since carbon comprises only 27.29% (12.0107 / [12.0107 + 2 × 15.9994])[4] of the mass of carbon dioxide. In simple terms, there are only 27 tonnes of carbon in 100 tonnes of carbon dioxide.

In an October, 2006, report entitled the Stern Review by then HM Treasury official and former Chief Economist and Senior Vice-President of the World Bank, Nicholas Stern, he states that climate change could affect growth which could be cut by one-fifth unless drastic action is taken.[5] Stern has warned that one percent of global GDP is required to be invested in order to mitigate the effects of climate change, and that failure to do so could risk a recession worth up to twenty percent of global GDP. Stern’s report suggests that climate change threatens to be the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen. The report has had significant political effects: Australia reported two days after the report was released that they would allot AU$60 million to projects to help cut greenhouse gas emissions. The Stern Review has been criticized by some economists, saying that Stern did not consider costs past 2200, that he used an incorrect discount rate in his calculations, and that stopping or significantly slowing climate change will require deep emission cuts everywhere.

According to a 2005 report from the Association of British Insurers, limiting carbon emissions could avoid 80% of the projected additional annual cost of tropical cyclones by the 2080s. A June 2004 report by the Association of British Insurers declared "Climate change is not a remote issue for future generations to deal with. It is, in various forms, here already, impacting on insurers' businesses now." It noted that weather risks for UK households and property were already increasing by 2–4% per year due to changing weather, and that claims for storm and flood damages in the UK had doubled to over £6 billion over the period 1998–2003, compared to the previous five years. As a result insurance premiums are rising. In the UK the insurance industry normally offers insurance against natural disasters, however there is a risk that in some areas flood insurance will become unaffordable for some, and it has been mooted that cover may be withdrawn in some areas entirely unless there is government backing.

In the U.S., according to Choi and Fisher (2003) each 1% increase in annual precipitation could enlarge catastrophe loss by as much as 2.8%. Financial institutions, including the world's two largest insurance companies, Munich Re and Swiss Re, warned in a 2002 study that "the increasing frequency of severe climatic events, coupled with social trends" could cost almost US$150 billion each year in the next decade. These costs would, through increased costs related to insurance and disaster relief, burden customers, taxpayers, and industry alike.

Border Issues

Concerns have been raised about carbon leakage which is the tendency for energy-intensive industries to migrate from nations with a carbon tax to those nations without a carbon tax where some of the receiving nations might be less energy-efficient. A possible antidote is for carbon-taxing countries to levy carbon-equivalent fees on imports from non-taxing nations.

Petroleum (motor gasoline, diesel, jet fuel)

Many OECD countries have taxed fuel directly for many years for some applications; for example, the UK imposes duty directly on vehicle hydrocarbon oils, including petrol and diesel fuel. The duty is adjusted to ensure that the carbon content of different fuels is handled with equivalence.

While a direct tax should send a clear signal to the consumer, its use as an efficient mechanism to influence consumers' fuel use has been challenged in some areas:

* There may be delays of a decade or more as inefficient vehicles are replaced by newer models and the older models filter through the 'fleet'.
* There may be practical political reasons that deter policy makers from imposing a new range of charges on their electorate.
* There is some evidence that consumers' decisions on fuel economy are not entirely aligned to the price of fuel. In turn, this can deter manufacturers from producing vehicles that they judge have lower sales potential. Other efforts, such as imposing efficiency standards on manufacturers, or changing the income tax rules on taxable benefits, may be at least as significant.
* In many countries fuel is already taxed to influence transport behavior and to raise other public revenues. Historically, they have used these fuel taxes as a source of general revenue, as their experience has been that the price elasticity of fuel is low, thus increasing fuel taxation has only slightly impacted on their economies. However, in these circumstances the policy behind a carbon tax may be unclear.

Some also note that a suitably priced tax on vehicle fuel may also counterbalance the "rebound effect" that has been observed when vehicle fuel consumption has improved through the imposition of efficiency standards. Rather than reduce their overall consumption of fuel, consumers have been seen to make additional journeys or purchase heavier and more powerful vehicles.

Carbon offset

2009-04-10T02:59:00.001-07:00

A carbon offset is a financial instrument aimed at a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO2e) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases. One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases.

There are two markets for carbon offsets. In the larger compliance market, companies, governments, or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit. In 2006, about $5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market, representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions.

In the much smaller voluntary market, individuals, companies, or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation, electricity use, and other sources. For example, an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel. In 2006, about $91 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market, representing about 24 million metric tons of CO2e reductions.

Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short- or long-term. The most common project type is renewable energy, such as wind farms, biomass energy, or hydroelectric dams. Others include energy efficiency projects, the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts, destruction of landfill methane, and forestry projects.

Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies. The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits which can be traded on a marketplace. The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely "additional" activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken. Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions.

Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one's own fossil-fuel consumption. However, some critics object to carbon offsets, and question the benefits of certain types of offsets.

Features of carbon offsets

Carbon offsets have several common features:

* Vintage. The vintage is the year in which the carbon reduction takes place.
* Source. The source refers to the project or technology used in offsetting the carbon emissions. Projects can include land-use, methane, biomass, renewable energy and industrial energy efficiency. Projects may also have secondary benefits (co-benefits). For example, projects that reduce agricultural greenhouse gas emissions may improve water quality by reducing fertilizer usage.
* Certification regime. The certification regime describes the systems and procedures that are used to certify and register carbon offsets. Different methodologies are used for measuring and verifying emissions reductions, depending on project type, size and location. For example, the Chicago Climate Exchange uses one set of protocols, while the CDM uses another. In the voluntary market, a variety of industry standards exist. These include the Voluntary Carbon Standard and the CDM Gold Standard that are implemented to provide third-party verification of carbon offset projects.

Carbon nanofoam

2009-04-10T02:58:00.002-07:00

Carbon nanofoam is an allotrope of carbon discovered in 1997 by Andrei V. Rode and co-workers at the Australian National University in Canberra. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web.

Each cluster is about 6 nanometers wide and consists of about 4000 carbon atoms linked in graphite-like sheets that are given negative curvature by the inclusion of heptagons among the regular hexagonal pattern. This is the opposite of what happens in the case of buckminsterfullerenes, in which carbon sheets are given positive curvature by the inclusion of pentagons.

The large-scale structure of carbon nanofoam is similar to that of an aerogel, but with 1% of the density of previously produced carbon aerogels—or only a few times the density of air at sea level. Unlike carbon aerogels, carbon nanofoam is a poor electrical conductor. The nanofoam contains numerous unpaired electrons, which Rode and colleagues propose is due to carbon atoms with only three bonds that are found at topological and bonding defects. This gives rise to what is perhaps carbon nanofoam's most unusual feature: it is attracted to magnets, and below −183 °C can itself be made magnetic.

Carbon sequestration

2009-04-10T02:58:00.001-07:00

Carbon sequestration is the storage of carbon dioxide (usually captured from the atmosphere) through biological, chemical or physical processes, for the mitigation of global warming. Most projects can be regarded as geoengineering. It has been proposed as a way to mitigate the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere released by the burning of fossil fuels.

Where the CO2 is captured as a pure by-product in processes related to petroleum refining (upgrading), or from flue gases from power generation. CO2 sequestration can then be seen as being synonymous with the storage part of carbon capture and storage, a term which refers to the large-scale, permanent artificial capture and sequestration of industrially-produced CO2 using subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil fields, or other sinks.

The first large-scale co2 sequestration project (1996) is called Sleipner, and is located in the North Sea where Norway's StatoilHydro strips carbon dioxide from natural gas with amine solvents and disposes of this carbon dioxide in a deep saline aquifer. In 2000, a coal-fueled Synthetic Natural Gas plant in Beulah, North Dakota, became the world's first coal using plant to capture and store carbon dioxide. "Weyburn-Midale CO2 Project, World’s first CO2 measuring, monitoring and verification initiative". Petroleum Technology Research Centre. http://www.ptrc.ca/weyburn_overview.php. Retrieved on 2009-04-09.

Biological processes

Biological processes have a huge effect on the Global carbon cycle. Major climatic fluctuations have been driven by these processes in the past, such as at the Azolla event which started the current Arctic climate. Fossil fuel formation is as a result of such processes, as is the formation of clathrate or limestone. By manipulating such techniques, geoengineers seek to enhance sequestration. Methods such as ocean iron fertilization are examples of such geoengineering techniques.

Ocean iron fertilization

Iron fertilization of the ocean to encourage plankton growth which removes carbon from the atmosphere on a temporary, or arguably permanent basis. This technique is controversial due to difficulties of predicting its effect on the marine ecosystem, and the potential for side effects or large deviations from expected efficacy. Such effects potentially include the release of nitrogen oxides and disruption to the nutrient balance in the ocean. Iron fertilization is a natural process and it is the enhancement of this process which is the geoengineering technique.

Ocean urea fertilisation

Proposed by Ian Jones with the purpose to fertilize the ocean with urea, a nitrogen rich substance, to encourage phytoplankton growth.

Australian company Ocean Nourishment Corporation (ONC) plans to sink hundreds of tonnes of urea into the ocean, in order to boost the growth of CO2-absorbing phytoplankton, as a way to combat climate change. In 2007, Sydney-based ONC completed an experiment involving 1 tonne of nitrogen in the Sulu Sea off the Philippines

Forestry

Reforestation of marginal crop and pasture lands to transfer CO2 from the atmosphere to new biomass. It is essential to ensure that the carbon did not return to the atmosphere from burning or rotting when the trees died. To this end, it would be important to either manage such forests in perpetuity or use the wood from them for biochar, BECS (see below) or landfill. This technique can give 0.27W/m2 of globally-averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of 1/6 of current levels of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. It is notable, however, that this CO2 levels will have risen by the time this could be achieved.

Peat production

Peat bogs are a very important store of carbon. By creating new bogs, or enhancing existing ones, carbon sequestration can be achieved.

Ocean mixing

Encouraging various layers of the ocean to mix can move nutrients and dissolved gases around and thus act as a geoengineering approach. Placing large vertical pipes in the oceans to bring nutrient rich water to the surface, triggering algal blooms, which also store carbon when they die. - a mechanism somewhat similar to ocean iron fertilization. This technique may result in a short-term rise in CO2 in the atmosphere, which limits its attractiveness. Forced upwelling can give 0.28W/m2 of globally-averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of 1/6th current levels of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. An alternative forced downwelling approach can give 0.16W/m2 of globally-averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of about 1/10th current levels of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. It is notable, however, that this CO2 levels will have risen by the time this could be achieved.

Biochar burial

Biochar is charcoal created by pyrolysis of biomass. The resulting charcoal-like material is landfilled, or used as a soil improver to create terra preta. Biogenic carbon is recycled naturally in the carbon cycle. By pyrolysing it to biochar, it’s rendered inert and sequestered in soil. Further, the soil encourages bulking with new organic matter, which gives additional sequestration benefit.

The carbon contained in the soil is therefore unavailable for oxidation to CO2 and consequential atmospheric release. As a result, the radiative forcing potential of the avoided CO2 is removed from the planet’s energy balance. This technique is advocated by prominent scientist James Lovelock, creator of the Gaia hypothesis.It can give 0.52W/m² of globally-averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of about 1/3 current levels of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. It is notable, however, that CO2 levels will have risen by the time this could be achieved. According to Simon Shackley, "I would say people are talking more about something in the range of one to two billion tonnes a year."

The mechanisms related to the carbon sequestration properties of biochar, is referred to as bio-energy with carbon storage, BECS.

BECCS

The term BECCS refers to Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage – Burning biomass in power stations and boilers which utilise carbon capture and storage.[25] Using this technology with sustainably produced biomass would result in net-negative carbon emissions, as the carbon sequestered during the growth of the biomass would be captured and stored, thus removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

This technology is sometimes referred to as bio-energy with carbon storage, BECS, though this term can also refer to the carbon sequestration potential in other technologies, such as biochar.

Biomass burial

Burying biomass (such as trees) directly, thus sequestering the carbon in the ground rather than allowing it to escape, mimicking the natural processes that created fossil fuels. Landfill of trash also represents a physical method of sequestration.

Biomass ocean storage

The production of fossil fuels is a natural process which often involves the ocean burial of biomass in the ocean, often near river mouths which bring large quantities of nutrients and dead material into the ocean. Transporting material, such as crop waste, out to sea and allowing it to sink into deep ocean storage has been proposed as a means of sequestration of carbon.

Carbon Capture and Storage

CO2 can be injected into old oil wells and other geological features, or can be stored in pure form in the deep ocean.

CO2 has been used extensively in enhanced crude oil recovery operations in the United States beginning in 1972. There are in excess of 10,000 CO2 wells in the state of Texas alone. The gas comes in part from anthropogenic sources, but principally from large naturally-occurring geologic formations of CO2. It is transported to the oil-producing fields through a large network of over 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) of CO2 pipelines. The use of CO2 for Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods in heavy oil reservoirs in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB)has also been proposed. However, cost of transport remains an important hurdle. A similar CO2 pipeline system to that of Texas does not yet exist in the WCSB that could connect most of the sources for CO2 in Canada associated with the mining and upgrading operations in the Athabasca oil sands, with the subsurface heavy oil reservoirs that could most benefit from CO2 injection hundreds of km to the south.

Carbon tetrachloride

2009-04-10T02:57:00.000-07:00

Carbon tetrachloride, also known by many other names (see Table) is the organic compound with the formula CCl4. It is a reagent in synthetic chemistry and was formerly widely used in fire extinguishers, as a precursor to refrigerants, and a cleaning agent. It is a colourless liquid with a "sweet" smell that can be detected at low levels.

Both carbon tetrachloride and tetrachloromethane are acceptable names under IUPAC nomenclature. Colloquially, it is called "carbon tet".

History and synthesis

The production of carbon tetrachloride has steeply declined since the 1980s due to environmental concerns and the decreased demand for CFCs, which were derived from carbon tetrachloride. In 1992, production in the U.S.-Europe-Japan was estimated at 720,000 tonnes.

Carbon tetrachloride was originally synthesised in 1839 by reaction of chloroform with chlorine, from the French chemist Henri Victor Regnault, but now it is mainly synthesized from methane:

CH4 + 4 Cl2 → CCl4 + 4HCl

The production often utilizes by-products of other chlorination reactions, such as the syntheses of dichloromethane and chloroform. Higher chlorocarbons are also subjected to "chlorinolysis:"

C2Cl6 + Cl2 → 2 CCl4

Prior to the 1950s, carbon tetrachloride was manufactured by the chlorination of carbon disulfide at 105 to 130 °C:

CS2 + 3Cl2 → CCl4 + S2Cl2

Properties

In the carbon tetrachloride molecule, four chlorine atoms are positioned symmetrically as corners in a tetrahedral configuration joined to a central carbon atom by single covalent bonds. Because of this symmetrical geometry, the molecule has no net dipole moment; that is, CCl4 is non-polar. Methane gas has the same structure, making carbon tetrachloride a halomethane. As a solvent, it is well suited to dissolving other non-polar compounds, fats and oils. It can also dissolve iodine. It is somewhat volatile, giving off vapors having a smell characteristic of other chlorinated solvents, somewhat similar to the tetrachloroethylene smell reminiscent of dry cleaners' shops.

Solid tetrachloromethane has 2 polymorphs: crystalline II below -47.5 °C (225.6 K) and crystalline I above -47.5 °C.

At -47.3 °C it has monoclinic crystal structure with space group C2/c and lattice constants a = 20.3, b = 11.6, c = 19.9 (.10-1 nm), β = 111°.

Uses

In the early 20th century, carbon tetrachloride was widely used as a dry cleaning solvent, as a refrigerant, and in lava lamps. Small, carbon tetrachloride fire extinguishers were widely used and took the form of a brass bottle with a hand pump to expel the liquid.

However, once it became apparent that carbon tetrachloride exposure had severe adverse health effects, safer alternatives such as tetrachloroethylene were found for these applications, and its use in these roles declined from about 1940 onward. Carbon tetrachloride persisted as a pesticide to kill insects in stored grain, but in 1970, it was banned in consumer products in the United States.

One specialty use of "carbon tet" was by stamp collectors to reveal watermarks on the backs of postage stamps. A small amount of the liquid was placed on the back of a stamp sitting in a black glass or obsidian tray. The letters or design of the watermark could then be clearly detected.

Prior to the Montreal Protocol, large quantities of carbon tetrachloride were used to produce the freon refrigerants R-11 (trichlorofluoromethane) and R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane). However, these refrigerants are now believed to play a role in ozone depletion and have been phased out. Carbon tetrachloride is still used to manufacture less destructive refrigerants.

Carbon tetrachloride has also been used in the detection of neutrinos. Carbon tetrachloride is one of the most potent hepatotoxins (toxic to the liver), and is widely used in scientific research to evaluate hepatoprotective agents 7,8

Reactivity

Carbon tetrachloride has practically no flammability at lower temperatures. Under high temperatures in air, it forms poisonous phosgene.

Because it has no C-H bonds, carbon tetrachloride does not easily undergo free-radical reactions. Hence it is a useful solvent for halogenations either by the elemental halogen, or by a halogenation reagent such as N-bromosuccinimide.

In organic chemistry, carbon tetrachloride serves as a source of chlorine in the Appel reaction.

Solvent

It is used as a solvent in synthetic chemistry research, but because of its adverse health effects, it is no longer commonly used, and chemists generally try to replace it with other solvents.[citation needed] It is sometimes useful as a solvent for infrared spectroscopy because there are no significant absorption bands > 1600 cm-1. Because carbon tetrachloride does not have any hydrogen atoms, it was historically used in proton NMR spectroscopy. However, carbon tetrachloride is toxic, and its dissolving power is low. Its use has been largely superseded by deuterated solvents, which offer superior solvating properties and allow for deuterium lock by the spectrometer. Use of carbon tetrachloride in determination of oil has been replaced by various other solvents.

Chemical weapon designation

2009-04-10T02:56:00.000-07:00

Chemical, biological, and radiological warfare agents are sometimes assigned what is termed a military symbol. Military symbols evolved out of the First World War from the British in part for secrecy, and to simplify reference to chemicals by something other than a chemical name. These symbols are sometimes applied as marking on weapons to indicate the agent contents.

Military symbols constantly change and have transitory definitions. For example, mustard gas was assigned the military symbol originally HS for "Hun Stuff". Later in the First World War the S in HS signified mustard gas that had about 25% solvent added to it. This was only in England, as HS was adopted as the military symbol by the United States - signifying crude mustard. In the Second World War the purity of mustard gas was improved through distillation, and this purified chemical warfare agent was designated HD. When it was mixed with a thickener (Agent VV), it was given the symbol HV. Today mustard gas is indicated by the single capital letter H, but HD is still in common use.

Military symbols can also reflect the name of where a chemical agent is manufactured. For example, chloropicrin has the symbol PS, which was derived from the British town in which it was manufactured during the First World War: Port Sunshine. Another device in assigning military symbols is in honor of the person that had devised the agent, such as Agent TZ (saxitoxin), which was derived after the name of its principal investigator, Dr. Edward Shantz.

Numbers are occasionally added to military symbols to reflect particular preparations. With riot control agents a 1 signifies micropulverized (e.g., CS1), and a 2 signified microencapsulated (e.g., CS2). With biological agents a 1 signifies a wet-type agent (e.g., UL1), and a 2 signifies a dry-type agent (e.g., UL2). Binary chemical weapons are signified by adding a 2, as in binary sarin (i.e., GB2).

Other formulations have their own designation. When the Tear Agent CS is formulated in a solvent it is signified by CSX. When agents are thickened with the addition of a polymer a T is usually added to the beginning of the symbol (e.g., thickened soman is TGD). The tear agent Mace, or Agent CN, had been formulated in several solvent forms, indicated by CNB (with benzene), CNC (with chloroform), and CNS (with chloropicrin and chloroform). Mixtures of agents have been identified with either a hyphen (e.g., CN-DM), or combining letters of the two agents (e.g., HD mixed with L is HL). Furthermore, one strain of the biological agent Tularemia has the symbol SR (lethal Schu strain), while another strain has JT (incapacitant 452 strain).

Military symbols for agents change form time to time for administrative reasons as well. For preserving secrecy, tularemia's symbol UL1 and UL2 was changed to TT and ZZ at one time, and then later to SR. During the Second World War cyanogen chloride's symbol was changed from CK to CC - when it became apparent that CC marked munitions might be mistaken for CG (phosgene), the symbol was changed back.

The following designations are, or have been, used by the United States:

Blood Agents

* AC - hydrogen cyanide
* CK - cyanogen chloride
* SA - Arsine

Choking Agents

* CL - chlorine
* CG - phosgene
* DP - diphosgene
* PS - chlorpicrin
* Z -

Blister Agents

* H - mustard gas
* HD - distilled mustard gas
* T - O-mustard
* Q - sesquimustard
* L - Lewisite
* HL - mustard-lewisite mixture
* HT - mustard-T mixture
* HQ - mustard-Q mixture
* HN - nitrogen mustard
* ED - ethyl dichloroarsine
* MD - methyl dichloroarsine
* PD - phenyl dichloroarsine

Tear Agents

* CA - camite
* CN - mace
* CNB - mace-benzene mixture
* CNC - mace-chloroform mixture
* CND
* CNS - mace-chloropicrin-chloroform mixture
* CS - CS gas
* CS1 - micropulverized CS
* CS2 - microencapsulated CS
* CR - CR gas
* CH -

Vomiting Agents

* DA - diphenylchlorarsine
* DC - diphenylcyanoarsine
* DM - Adamsite

Psycho Agents

* BZ - 3-quinuclidinyl benzilate
* SN - sernyl (PCP)
* K - lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)

Nerve Agents

* GA - tabun [EA1205]
* GB - sarin [EA1208]
* GB2 - sarin as a binary agent from mixing OPA (isopropyl alcohol+isopropyl amine) + DF [EA5823]
* GD - soman [EA1210]
* GF - cyclosarin [EA1212]
* GE - ethyl sarin
* GH - O-isopentyl sarin [EA1221]
* GS - S-butyl sarin [EA1255]
* VE - VE nerve agent [EA1517]
* VM - Edemo [EA1664]
* VS - [EA1677]
* VP - (3-pyridyl 3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexyl methylphosphonate) [EA1511]
* VR - (O-isobutyl S-(2-diethaminoethyl) methylphosphothioate)
* VX - VX nerve agent [EA1701]
* GV - (dimethylaminoethyl phosphorodimethyl amidoylfluoridate) [EA5365]
* VG - Amiton (O,O-diethyl-S-[2-(diethylamino)ethyl] phosphorothioate) [EA1508]

Mycotic Biological Agents

* OC - Coccidioides mycosis

Bacterial Biological Agents

* N - anthrax
* TR - anthrax
* LE - plague
* UL - tularemia (schu S4)
* TT - wet-type UL
* ZZ - dry-type UL
* SR - tularemia
* JT - tularemia (425)
* HO - cholera
* AB - bovine brucellosis
* US - porcine brucellosis
* NX - porcine brucellosis
* AM - caprine brucellosis
* BX - caprine brucellosis
* Y - bacterial dysentery
* LA - Glanders
* HI - Melioidosis
* DK - diphtheria
* TQ - listeriosis

Chlamydial Biological Agents

* SI - psittacosis

Rickettsial Biological Agents

* RI - rocky mountain spotted fever
* UY - rocky mountain spotted fever
* OU - Q fever
* MN - wet-type OU
* NT - dry-type OU
* YE - human typhus
* AV - murine typhus

Viral Biological Agents

* OJ - yellow fever
* UT - yellow fever
* LU - yellow fever
* FA - Rift Valley fever
* NU - Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
* TD - Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis virus
* FX - Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis virus
* ZX - Eastern equine encephalitis virus
* ZL - smallpox
* AN - Japanese B encephalitis

Biological Vectors

* AP = Aedes aegypti mosquito

Biological Toxins

* X - botulinum toxin A
* XR - partially purified botulinum toxin A
* W - ricin toxin
* WA - ricin toxin
* UC - staphyloccocal enterotoxin B
* PG - staphyloccocal enterotoxin B
* TZ - saxitoxin
* SS - saxitoxin
* PP - tetrodotoxin

Simulants

* MR - molasis residium
* BG - Bacillus globigii
* BS - Bacillus globigii
* U - Bacillus globigii
* SM - Serratia marcescens
* P - Serratia marcescens
* AF - Aspergillus fumigatus mutant C-2
* EC - Escherichia coli
* BT - Bacillus thursidius
* EH - Erwinia hebicola
* FP - fluorescent particle

Canary

2009-04-10T02:55:00.000-07:00

The Canary (Serinus canaria), also called the Island Canary, Atlantic Canary or Common Canary, is a small passerine bird belonging to the genus Serinus in the finch family, Fringillidae. It is native to the Azores, the Canary Islands, and Madeira. Wild birds are mostly yellow-green, with brownish streaking on the back. The species is common in captivity and a number of different colour varieties have been bred.

Description

It is 12.5 cm long, with a wingspan of 20-23 cm and a weight of 15-20 g. The male has a largely yellow-green head and underparts with a yellower forehead, face and supercilium. The lower belly and undertail-coverts are whitish and there are some dark streaks on the sides. The upperparts are grey-green with dark streaks and the rump is dull yellow. The female is similar to the male but duller with a greyer head and breast and less yellow underparts. Juvenile birds are largely brown with dark streaks.

It is about 10% larger, longer and less contrasted than its relative the Serin, and has more grey and brown in its plumage and relatively shorter wings.

The song is a silvery twittering similar to the songs of the Serin and Citril Finch.

Taxonomy

The species was scientifically described by Carolus Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae. He named it Fringilla Canaria but it was later moved to the genus Serinus. Its closest relative is the European Serin and the two can sometimes produce fertile hybrids.

Etymology

The bird is named after the Canary Islands, not the other way around, derived from the Latin name canariae insulae ("islands of dogs") used by Arnobius, referring to the large dogs kept by the inhabitants of the islands. The colour canary yellow is in turn named after the yellow Domestic Canary.

Distribution and habitat

It is endemic to the Canary Islands, Azores and Madeira in the region known as Macaronesia in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the Canary Islands it is common on La Gomera, La Palma and El Hierro but more local on Gran Canaria and rare on Lanzarote and Fuerteventura where it has only recently begun breeding. It is common in Madeira including Porto Santo and the Desertas Islands and has been recorded on the Salvage Islands. In the Azores it is common on all islands. The population has been estimated at 80,000-90,000 pairs in the Canary Islands, 30,000-60,000 pairs in the Azores and 4,000-5,000 pairs in Madeira.

It occurs in a wide variety of habitats from pine and laurel forests to sand dunes. It is most common in semi-open areas with small trees such as orchards and copses. It frequently occurs in man-made habitats such as parks and gardens. It is found from sea-level up to at least 760 m in Madeira, 1100 m in the Azores and to above 1500 m in the Canary Islands.

It has become established on Midway Atoll in the north-west Hawaiian Islands where it was first introduced in 1911. It was also introduced to neighbouring Kure Atoll but failed to become established.[8] Birds were introduced to Bermuda in 1930 and quickly started breeding but they began to decline in the 1940s after scale insects devastated the population of Bermuda cedar and by the 1960s they had died out. The species also occurs in Puerto Rico but is not yet established there.

Behaviour

Reproduction

It is a gregarious bird which often nests in groups with each pair defending a small territory. The cup-shaped nest is built 1-6 m above the ground in a tree or bush, most commonly at 3-4 m. It is well-hidden amongst leaves, often at the end of a branch or in a fork. It is made of twigs, grass, moss and other plant material and lined with soft material including hair and feathers.

The eggs are laid between January and July in the Canary Islands, from March to June with a peak of April and May in Madeira and from March to July with a peak of May and June in the Azores. They are pale blue or blue-green with violet or reddish markings concentrated at the broad end. A clutch contains 3 to 4 or occasionally 5 eggs and 2-3 broods are raised each year. The eggs are incubated for 13-14 days and the young birds fledge after 14-21 days, most commonly after 15-17 days.
Feeding

It typically feeds in flocks, foraging on the ground or amongst low vegetation. It mainly feeds on seeds such as those of weeds, grasses and figs. It also feeds on other plant material and small insects.

Relationship with humans

This species is often kept as a pet; see Domestic Canary for details. Selective breeding has produced many varieties, differing in colour and shape. Yellow birds are particularly common while red birds have been produced by interbreeding with the Red Siskin. Canaries were formerly used by miners to warn of dangerous gases. The bird is also widely used in scientific research. Canaries are often depicted in the media with Tweety Bird being a well-known example.

Calnev Pipeline

2009-04-10T02:54:00.000-07:00

The Calnev Pipeline is a 550 miles (885 km) long buried oil pipeline in the United States that carries gasoline, jet fuel, and diesel fuel from Los Angeles refineries in California to Nellis Air Force Base on the northeast side of Las Vegas, Nevada. It carries approximately 128,000 barrels per day (5,380,000 gallons or 20.4 megaliters). Jet fuel from the pipeline is also sent to McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas. There are two pipes with diameter of 14 inches (356 mm) and 8 inches (203 mm). The pipeline is owned by Kinder Morgan Energy Partners.

On May 25, 1989, the Calnev Pipeline ruptured in a San Bernardino, California neighborhood due to damage from the cleanup of a train derailment that occurred thirteen days earlier. The resulting gasoline fire killed two people and destroyed eleven homes.

On July 23, 2007, Kinder Morgan Energy Partners announced that it will expand the pipeline by constructing additional 16 inches (406 mm) pipeline alongside the existing pipeline. It will increase the pipeline capacity up to 200,000 barrels per day (32,000 m³/d), and with additional pumping stations even over 300,000 barrels per day (48,000 m³/d).

Buglife - The Invertebrate Conservation Trust

2009-04-10T02:46:00.000-07:00

Buglife - The Invertebrate Conservation Trust (usually referred to simply as Buglife) is a British nature conservation charity based in Cambridgeshire, England. Its aim is to prevent invertebrate extinctions and to maintain sustainable populations of invertebrates in the United Kingdom.

Activities undertaken by Buglife fall into the following areas:

* Undertaking and promoting study and research
* Promoting habitat management aimed at maintaining and enhancing invertebrate biodiversity
* Publicising invertebrates

Biocoenosis

2009-04-08T00:03:00.003-07:00

A biocoenosis (alternatively, biocoenose or biocenose ), termed by Karl Möbius in 1877, describes all the interacting organisms living together in a specific habitat (or biotope). Biotic community , biological community, and ecological community are more common synonyms of biocenosis, all of which represent the same concepts. Three related descriptors are zoocoenosis for the faunal community, phytocoenosis for the floral community and microbiocoenosis for the microbial community within an ecosystem. The extent or geographical area of a biocenose is limited only by the requirement of a more or less uniform species composition.

An ecosystem, as originally defined by Tansley (1935), is a biotic community (or biocoenosis) along with its physical environment (or biotope as defined by many known ecologists).

The importance of the biocoenosis concept in ecology is its emphasis on the interrelationships among species in a geographical area. These interactions are as important as the physical factors to which each species is adapted and responding. In a very real sense, it is the specific biological community or biocoenosis that is adapted to conditions that prevail in a given place.

Biotic communities may be of varying sizes, and larger ones may contain smaller ones. The interactions between species are especially evident in food or feeding relationships. Therefore, a practical method of delineating biotic communities is to map the food network to identify which species feed upon which others and then determine the system boundary as the one that can be drawn through the fewest consumption links relative to the number of species within the boundary.

Mapping biotic communities is particularly important when identifying sites in need of environmental protection such as the British Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). The Australian Department of the Environment and Heritage maintains a register of Threatened Species and Threatened Ecological Communities under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act).

BioBlitz

2009-04-08T00:03:00.001-07:00

A BioBlitz is a 24-hour inventory of all living organisms in a given area, often an urban park. The term "BioBlitz" was coined by National Park Service naturalist Susan Rudy while assisting with the first BioBlitz at Kenilworth Aquatic Gardens, Washington D.C. BioBlitz in May 31 - June 1, 1996. Approximately 1000 species were identified at this event. This early BioBlitz was conceived and organised by Sam Droege (USGS) and Dan Roddy (NPS), and inspired many other organisations to do the same. The bioblitz name and concept is not registered, copyrighted, or trademarked; it is an idea that can be used, adapted, and modified by any group to freely use for their own purposes. The next year, 1997, the Carnegie Museum of Natural History conducted a BioBlitz in one of the Pittsburgh parks. They added a public component, inviting the public to see what the scientists were doing. At about the same time Harvard biologist E.O. Wilson and Massachusetts wildlife expert Peter Alden developed a program to catalog the organisms around Walden Pond, which led to a state-wide program known as biodiversity Days.

A bioblitz has the dual aims of establishing the degree of biodiversity in an area and popularising science. Botanists, mycologists and entomologists all play a role. Some BioBlitzes are an annual event.

Scientists establish a base at a point close to the area and provide expertise in identifying organisms found by the public as well as doing their own inspection of the area.

A full BioBlitz must take place over a full 24-hour period as different organisms are likely to be found at different times of day. Schools may organise BioBlitzes over a shorter period of time, but the results will less accurately show the variety of species in the area.

The First Annual Blogger BioBlitz is planned for the week of 21 - 29 April 2007. Participants pledge to conduct individual Bioblitzes and the results will be compiled and mapped. So, unlike traditional BioBlitzes the surveys are not likely to be deep across many taxonomic groups. However, they will serve to raise awareness about biological diversity and will provide a broad snapshot of spring diversity in many locations.

Biodynamic agriculture

2009-04-08T00:01:00.002-07:00

Biodynamic agriculture, a method of organic farming that has its basis in a spiritual world-view (anthroposophy, first propounded by Rudolf Steiner), treats farms as unified and individual organisms, emphasizing balancing the holistic development and interrelationship of the soil, plants, animals as a closed, self-nourishing system. Regarded by some proponents as the first modern ecological farming system, biodynamic farming includes organic agriculture's emphasis on manures and composts and exclusion of the use of artificial chemicals on soil and plants. Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include the use of fermented herbal and mineral preparations as compost additives and field sprays and the use of an astronomical sowing and planting calendar.

History

The development of biodynamic agriculture began in 1924 with a series of eight lectures on agriculture given by Rudolf Steiner at Schloss Koberwitz in what was then Silesia, Germany, (now in Poland east of Wrocław). The course was held in response to a request by farmers who noticed degraded soil conditions and a deterioration in the health and quality of crops and livestock resulting from the use of chemical fertilizers. An agricultural research group was subsequently formed to test the effects of biodynamic methods on the life and health of soil, plants and animals. In the United States, the Biodynamic Farming & Gardening Association was founded in 1938 as a New York state corporation.

In Australia the first biodynamic preparations were made by Ernesto Genoni in Melbourne in 1927 and by Bob Williams in Sydney in 1939. Since the 1950s research work has continued at the Biodynamic Research Institute (BDRI) in Powelltown, near Melbourne Australia under the direction of Alexei Podolinsky. In 1989 Biodynamic Agriculture Australia was established, as a not for profit association. It has well over 1100 members and has local and regional groups throughout Australia. It publishes the biodynamic journal News Leaf quarterly and is the largest organic growers association in Australia.

Today biodynamics is practiced in more than 50 countries worldwide. The University of Kassel has a dedicated Department of Biodynamic Agriculture.

Biodynamic method of farming

Biodynamic agriculture conceives of the farm as an organism, a self-contained entity with its own individuality. "Emphasis is placed on the integration of crops and livestock, recycling of nutrients, maintenance of soil, and the health and well being of crops and animals; the farmer too is part of the whole." Cover crops, green manures and crop rotations are used extensively.

Biodynamic preparations

Steiner prescribed nine different preparations to aid fertilization which are the cornerstone of biodynamic agriculture, and described how these were to be prepared. The prepared substances are numbered 500 through 508, where the first two are used for preparing fields whereas the latter seven are used for making compost. Though most studies have shown relatively little direct effect of the preparations on soil structure, or on compost development beyond accelerating the initial phase of composting, some positive effects have been noted:

* The field sprays contain substances that stimulate plant growth include cytokinins.
* Some improvement in nutrient content of compost.

Field preparations

Field preparations, for stimulating humus formation:

* 500: (horn-manure) a humus mixture prepared by filling the horn of a cow with cow manure and burying it in the ground (40–60 cm below the surface) in the autumn. It is left to decompose during the winter and recovered for use the following spring.
* 501: Crushed powdered quartz prepared by stuffing it into a horn of a cow and buried into the ground in spring and taken out in autumn. It can be mixed with 500 but usually prepared on its own (mixture of 1 tablespoon of quartz powder to 250 liters of water) The mixture is sprayed under very low pressure over the crop during the wet season to prevent fungal diseases. It should be sprayed on an overcast day or early in the morning to prevent burning of the leaves.

Both 500 and 501 are used on fields by stirring about one teaspoon of the contents of a horn in 40–60 liters of water for an hour and whirling it in different directions every second minute.

Compost preparations

Compost preparations, used for preparing compost, employ herbs which are frequently used in medicinal remedies:

* 502: Yarrow blossoms (Achillea millefolium) are stuffed into urinary bladders from Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), placed in the sun during summer, buried in earth during winter and retrieved in the spring.
* 503: Chamomile blossoms (Matricaria recutita) are stuffed into small intestines from cattle buried in humus-rich earth in the autumn and retrieved in the spring.
* 504: Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) plants in full bloom are stuffed together underground surrounded on all sides by peat for a year.
* 505: Oak bark (Quercus robur) is chopped in small pieces, placed inside the skull of a domesticated animal, surrounded by peat and buried in earth in a place where lots of rain water runs past.
* 506: Dandelion flowers (Taraxacum officinale) is stuffed into the peritoneum of cattle and buried in earth during winter and retrieved in the spring.
* 507: Valerian flowers (Valeriana officinalis) are extracted into water.
* 508: Horsetail (Equisetum)

One to three grams (a teaspoon) of each preparation is added to a dung heap by digging 50 cm deep holes with a distance of 2 meters from each other, except for the 507 preparation, which is stirred into 5 liters of water and sprayed over the entire compost surface. All preparations are thus used in homeopathic quantities. Each compost preparation is designed to guide a particular decomposition process in the composting mass.

One study found that the oak bark preparation improved disease resistance in zucchini.

Astronomical planting calendar

The approach considers that there are astronomical influences on soil and plant development, specifying, for example, what phase of the moon is most appropriate for planting, cultivating or harvesting various kinds of crops. This aspect of biodynamics has been termed "astrological" in nature.

Treatment of pests and weeds

Biodynamic agriculture sees the basis of pest and disease control arising from a strong healthy balanced farm organism. Where this is not yet achieved it uses techniques analogous to fertilization for pest control and weed control. Most of these techniques include using the ashes of a pest or weed that has been trapped or picked from the fields and burnt. A biodynamic farmer perceives weeds and plant vulnerability to pests as a result of imbalances in the soil.

* Pests such as insects or field mice (Apodemus) have more complex processes associated with them, depending on what pest is to be targeted. For example field mice are to be countered by deploying ashes prepared from field mice skin when Venus is in the Scorpius constellation.

* Weeds are combated (besides the usual mechanical methods) by collecting seeds from the weeds and burning them above a wooden flame that was kindled by the weeds. The ashes from the seeds are then spread on the fields, then lightly spray with the clear urine of a sterile cow (the urine should be exposed to the full moon for six hours), this is intended to block the influence from the full moon on the particular weed and make it infertile.

Seed production

Biodynamic agriculture has focused on open pollination of seeds (permitting farmers to grow their own seed) and the development of locally adapted varieties. The seed stock is not controlled by large, multinational seed companies.

Trademark protection of term biodynamic

The term Biodynamic is a trademark held by the Demeter association of biodynamic farmers for the purpose of maintaining production standards used both in farming and processing foodstuffs.(This is not a trademark held privately in New Zealand) The trademark is intended to protect both the consumer and the producers of biodynamic produce. Demeter International is an organization of member countries; each country has its own Demeter organization which is required to meet international production standards (but can also exceed them). The original Demeter organization was founded in 1928; the U.S. Demeter Association was formed in the 1980s and certified its first farm in 1982. In France, Biodivin certifies biodynamic wine. In Egypt, SEKEM has created the Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBDA), an association that provides training for farmers to become certified.

Basel Convention

2009-04-08T00:01:00.001-07:00

The Basel Convention (verbose: Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal) is an international treaty that was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries (LDCs). It does not, however, address the movement of radioactive waste. The Convention is also intended to minimize the amount and toxicity of wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of generation, and to assist LDCs in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and other wastes they generate.

The Convention was opened for signature on March 22, 1989, and entered into force on May 5, 1992. A list of parties to the Convention, and their ratification status, can be found on the Basel Secretariat's web page. Of the 170 parties to the Convention, Afghanistan, Haiti, and the United States have signed the Convention but have not yet ratified it.

History

With the tightening of environmental laws (e.g., RCRA) in developed nations in the 1970s, disposal costs for hazardous waste rose dramatically. At the same time, globalization of shipping made transboundary movement of waste more accessible, and many LDCs were desperate for foreign currency. Consequently, the trade in hazardous waste, particularly to LDCs, grew rapidly.

One of the incidents which led to the creation of the Basel Convention was the Khian Sea waste disposal incident, in which a ship carrying incinerator ash from the city of Philadelphia in the United States after having dumped half of its load on a beach in Haiti, was forced away where it sailed for many months, changing its name several times. Unable to unload the cargo in any port, the crew was believed to have dumped much of it at sea.

Another is the 1988 Koko case in which 5 ships transported 8,000 barrels of hazardous waste from Italy to the small town of Koko in Nigeria in exchange for $100 monthly rent which was paid to a Nigerian for the use of his farmland.

These practices have been deemed "Toxic Colonialism" by many developing countries.

At its most recent meeting, November 27–December 1, 2006, the Conference of the Parties of the Basel Agreement focused on issues of electronic waste and the dismantling of ships.

According to Maureen Walsh in "The global trade in hazardous wastes: domestic and international attempts to cope with a growing crisis in waste management" 42 Cath. U. Law Review 103 (1992), only around 4% of hazardous wastes that come from OECD countries are actually shipped across international borders. These wastes include, among others, chemical waste, radioactive waste, municipal solid waste, asbestos, incinerator ash, and old tires. Of internationally-shipped waste that comes from developed countries, more than half is shipped for recovery and the remainder for final disposal.

Increased trade in recyclable materials has led to an increase in a market for used products such as computers. This market is valued in billions of dollars. At issue is the distinction when used computers stop being a "commodity" and become a "waste".

Definition of hazardous waste

A waste will fall under the scope of the Convention if it is within the category of wastes listed in Annex I of the Convention and it does exhibit one of the hazardous characteristics contained in Annex III . In other words it must both be listed and contain a characteristic such as being explosive, flammable, toxic, or corrosive. The other way that a waste may fall under the scope of the Convention is if it is defined as or considered to be a hazardous waste under the laws of either the exporting country, the importing country, or and of the countries of transit .

The definition of the term disposal is made in Article 2 al 4 and just refers to annex IV, which gives a list of operations which are understood as disposal or revovery. The examples of disposal are broad and include also recovery, recycling and reuse.

Annex II lists other wastes such as household wastes and residue that comes from incinerating household waste.

Radioactive waste that is covered under other international control systems and wastes from the normal operation of ships is not covered.

Annex IX attempts to define "commodities" which are not considered wastes and which would be excluded.

Obligations

In addition to conditions on the import and export of the above wastes, there are stringent requirements for notice, consent and tracking for movement of wastes across national boundaries. It is of note that the Convention places a general prohibition on the exportation or importation of wastes between Parties and non-Parties. The exception to this rule is where the waste is subject to another treaty that does not take away from the Basel Convention. The United States is a notable non-Party to the Convention and has a number of such agreements for allowing the shipping of hazardous wastes to Basel Party countries.

The OECD Council also has its own control system that governs the trans-boundary movement of hazardous materials between OECD member countries. This allows, among other things, the OECD countries to continue trading in wastes with countries like the United States that have not ratified the Basel Convention.

Parties to the Convention must honor import bans of other Parties.

Article 4 of the Basel Convention calls for an overall reduction of waste generation. By encouraging countries to keep wastes within their boundaries and as close as possible to its source of generation, the internal pressures should provide incentives for waste reduction and pollution prevention.

The Convention states that illegal hazardous waste traffic is criminal but contains no enforcement provisions.

According to Article 12, Parties are directed to adopt a protocol that establishes liability rules and procedures that are appropriate for damage that comes from the movement of hazardous waste across borders.

Basel Ban Amendment

After the initial adoption of the Convention, some LDCs and environmental organizations argued that it did not go far enough. Many nations and NGOs argued for a total ban on shipment of all hazardous waste to LDCs. In particular, the original Convention did not prohibit waste exports to any location except Antarctica but merely required a notification and consent system known as "prior informed consent" or PIC. Further, many waste traders sought to exploit the good name of recycling and begin to justify all exports as moving to recycling destinations. Many believed a full ban was needed including exports for recycling. These concerns led to several regional waste trade bans, including the Bamako Convention.

Lobbying at the 1995 Basel conference by LDCs, Greenpeace and key European countries such as Denmark, led to a decision to adopt the Basel Ban Amendment to the Basel Convention. Not yet in force, but considered morally binding by signatories, the Amendment prohibits the export of hazardous waste from a list of developed (mostly OECD) countries to developing countries. The Basel Ban applies to export for any reason, including recycling. An area of special concern for advocates of the Amendment was the sale of ships for salvage, shipbreaking. The Ban Amendment was strenuously opposed by a number of industry groups as well as nations including the United States and Canada. As of late-2005, 63 nations have ratified the Basel Ban Amendment; 62 are required for it to enter into force. The status of the amendment ratifications can be found on the Basel Secretariat's web page. The European Union fully implemented the Basel Ban in its Waste Shipment Regulation (EWSR), making it legally binding in all EU member states.

Bali roadmap

2009-04-08T00:00:00.002-07:00

After the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference on the island Bali in Indonesia in December, 2007, the participating nations adopted the Bali Roadmap (also known as the Bali Action Plan) as a two-year process to finalizing a binding agreement in 2009 in Denmark.

Cutting emissions

The nations acknowledge that evidence for global warming is unequivocal, and that humans must reduce emissions to reduce the risks of "severe climate change impacts". There was a strong consensus for updated changes for both developed and developing countries. Although there were not specific numbers agreed upon in order to cut emissions, many countries agreed that there was a need for "deep cuts in global emissions" and that "developed country emissions must fall 10-40% by 2020".

Charges of hypocrisy

The December 2007 global warming conference in Bali contributed to global warming in the following ways:

* A November 25, 2007 article in Times Online reported that it was estimated that that year's conference would release the equivalent of 100,000 tons of carbon dioxide.

* A December 18, 2007 article in the Sydney Morning Herald revealed new information that brought this total even higher. According to the article, a special custom air conditioning system was installed specifically for the conference. The air conditioning system used hydrochlorofluorocarbons, an outdated refrigerant gas that is especially bad for the problem of global warming. According to the article, the air conditioning used during the conference released the equivalent of 48,000 tons of carbon dioxide. The article stated, "... the refrigerant is a potent greenhouse gas, with each kilogram at least as damaging as 1.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide. Investigators at the Balinese resort complex at Nusa Dua counted 700 cylinders of the gas, each of them weighing 13.5 kilograms, and the system was visibly leaking."

Forests

The nations pledge "policy approaches and positive incentives" to protect forests.

Adaptation

The nations opt for enhanced co-operation to "support urgent implementation" of measures to protect poorer countries against climate change impacts.

Technology transfer

The nations will consider how to facilitate the transfer of clean technologies from industrialised nations to the developing countries.

Timescales

Work on the Bali roadmap will begin as soon as possible. Four major UNFCCC meetings to implement the Bali Roadmap are planned for 2008, with the first to be held in either March or April and the second in June, with the third in either August or September followed by a major meeting in Poznan, Poland in December 2008. The negotiations process is scheduled to conclude in 2009 at a major summit in Copenhagen, Denmark.

Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline

2009-04-08T00:00:00.001-07:00

The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline is a 1,768 kilometres (1,099 mi) long crude oil pipeline from the Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli oil field in the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. It connects Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan; Tbilisi, the capital of Georgia; and Ceyhan, a port on the south-eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey, hence its name. It is the second longest oil pipeline in the world after the Druzhba pipeline. The first oil that was pumped from the Baku end of the pipeline on May 10, 2005 reached Ceyhan on May 28, 2006.

History

Planning

The Caspian Sea lies above one of the world's largest groups of oil and gas fields. As the Caspian Sea is landlocked, transporting oil to Western markets is complicated. During Soviet times, all transportation routes from the Caspian region were built through Russia. The collapse of the Soviet Union inspired a search for new routes. Russia first insisted that the new pipeline should pass through Russian territory, then declined to participate. A pipeline through Iran from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf is the shortest route from a geographic standpoint, but Iran was considered an undesirable partner for a number of reasons: its theocratic government, concerns about its nuclear program, and United States sanctions that restrict U.S. companies' investment in the country.

In the spring of 1992, the Turkish Prime Minister Süleyman Demirel proposed to Central Asian countries and Azerbaijan, that the pipeline run through Turkey. The first document on the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline was signed between Azerbaijan and Turkey on 9 March 1993 in Ankara.

The Turkish route meant a pipeline from Azerbaijan through either Georgia or Armenia. A route through Armenia was inconvenient, due to regional tensions over Turkey's refusal to recognize the Armenian Genocide, as well as the unresolved military conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh. This left the circuitous Azerbaijan-Georgia-Turkey route as politically most expedient for the major parties, although it was longer and more expensive to build than the other options.

The BTC pipeline project gained momentum following the Ankara Declaration, adopted on 29 October 1998 by President of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev, President of Georgia Eduard Shevardnadze, President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev, President of Turkey Süleyman Demirel, and President of Uzbekistan Islom Karimov. The declaration was witnessed by the United States Secretary of Energy Bill Richardson, who expressed strong support for the BTC pipeline. The intergovernmental agreement in support of the BTC pipeline was signed by Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey on 18 November 1999, during a meeting of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) in Istanbul, Turkey.

Construction

The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline Company (BTC Co.) began in London on 1 August 2002. The ceremony launching construction of the pipeline was held on 18 September 2002. Construction began in April 2003 and was completed in 2005. The Azerbaijan section was constructed by Consolidated Contractors International of Greece, and Georgia's section was constructed by a joint venture of France’s Spie Capag and US Petrofac Petrofac International. The Turkish section was constructed by BOTAŞ. Bechtel was the main contractor for engineering, procurement and construction.

Inauguration

On 25 May 2005, the pipeline was inaugurated at the Sangachal Terminal by President Ilham Aliyev of the Azerbaijan Republic, President Mikhail Saakashvili of Georgia and President Ahmet Sezer of Turkey, joined by President Nursaltan Nazarbayev of Kazakhstan, as well as United States Secretary of Energy Samuel Bodman. The inauguration of the Georgian section of the pipeline was hosted by President Mikheil Saakashvili at the BTC pumping station near Gardabani on 12 October 2005. The inauguration ceremony at the Ceyhan terminal was held on 13 July 2006.

Pumping began on 10 May 2005 and reached Ceyhan in 28 May 2006. The first oil was loaded at the Cheyhan Marine Terminal (Haydar Aliyev Terminal) onto a tanker named British Hawthorn. The tanker sailed away from the port on 4 June 2006 with about 600,000 barrels (95,000 m3) of crude oil.

Description of the pipeline

Route

The 1,768 kilometres (1,099 mi) long pipeline starts at the Sangachal Terminal near Baku in Azerbaijan, crosses Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey and terminates at the Ceyhan Marine Terminal (Haydar Aliyev Terminal) on the south-eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. 443 kilometres (275 mi) of the pipeline lie in Azerbaijan, 249 kilometres (155 mi) in Georgia and 1,076 kilometres (669 mi) in Turkey. It crosses several mountain ranges at altitudes to 2,830 metres (9,300 ft). It also traverses 3,000 roads, railways, and utility lines—both overground and underground—as well as 1,500 watercourses of up to 500 metres (1,600 ft) wide (in the case of the Ceyhan River in Turkey). The pipeline occupies a corridor eight meters wide, and is buried along its entire length at a depth of no less than one meter. The BTC pipeline runs parallel to the South Caucasus Gas Pipeline, which transports natural gas from the Sangachal Terminal to Erzurum in Turkey. From Sarız to Ceyhan, the Samsun-Ceyhan oil pipeline will be laid parallel to the BTC pipeline.

Technical features

The pipeline has a projected lifespan of 40 years, and when working at normal capacity, it transports 1 million barrels (160,000 m3) of oil per day. It needs 10 million barrels (1,600,000 m3) of oil to fill the pipeline. Oil flows through the pipeline at the speed of 2 metres (6.6 ft) per second. There are eight pump stations through the pipeline route (two in Azerbaijan, two in Georgia, four in Turkey). The project includes also the Ceyhan Marine Terminal (officially the Haydar Aliyev Terminal, named after the Azerbaijani late president Heydar Aliyev), two intermediate pigging stations, one pressure reduction station, and 101 small block valves. It was constructed from 150,000 individual joints of line pipe, each measuring 12 metres (39 ft) in length. This corresponds to a total weight of 655,000 short tons (594,000 metric tons). The pipeline is 1,070 mm (42 inches) diameter for most of its length, narrowing to 865 mm (34 inches) diameter as it nears Ceyhan.

Cost and financing

The pipeline cost US$3.9 billion. The construction created 10,000 short-term jobs and the operation of pipeline requires 1,000 long-term employees across a 40 year period. 70% of BTC costs are being funded by third parties, including the World Bank's International Finance Corporation, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, export credit agencies of seven countries and a syndicate of 15 commercial banks.

Source of supply

The BTC pipeline is supplied by oil from Azerbaijan's Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli oil field in the Caspian Sea via the Sangachal Terminal. This pipeline may also transport oil from the Kazakhstan's Kashagan oil field as well as from other oil fields in Central Asia.[3] The government of Kazakhstan announced that it would build a trans-Caspian oil pipeline from the Kazakhstani port of Aktau to Baku, but because of the opposition from both Russia and Iran, it started to transport oil to the BTC pipeline by tankers across the Caspian Sea.

Possible transhipment via Israel

It has been proposed that oil from the BTC pipeline be transported to eastern Asia via the Israeli oil terminals at Ashkelon and Eilat, the overland trans-Israel sector being bridged by the Eilat-Ashkelon Pipeline owned by the Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline Company (EAPC).

Atomic physics

2009-04-07T23:58:00.000-07:00

Atomic physics (or atom physics) is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. It is primarily concerned with the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus and the processes by which these arrangements change. This includes ions as well as neutral atoms and, unless otherwise stated, for the purposes of this discussion it should be assumed that the term atom includes ions.

The term atomic physics is often associated with nuclear power and nuclear bombs, due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in standard English. However, physicists distinguish between atomic physics—which deals with the atom as a system comprising of a nucleus and electrons, and nuclear physics—which considers atomic nuclei alone.

As with many scientific fields, strict delineation can be highly contrived and atomic physics is often considered in the wider context of atomic, molecular, and optical physics. Physics research groups are usually so classified.

Isolated atoms

Atomic physics always considers atoms in isolation. Atomic models will consist of a single nucleus which may be surrounded by one or more bound electrons. It is not concerned with the formation of molecules (although much of the physics is identical) nor does it examine atoms in a solid state as condensed matter. It is concerned with processes such as ionization and excitation by photons or collisions with atomic particles.

While modelling atoms in isolation may not seem realistic, if one considers atoms in a gas or plasma then the time-scales for atom-atom interactions are huge in comparison to the atomic processes that we are concerned with. This means that the individual atoms can be treated as if each were in isolation because for the vast majority of the time they are. By this consideration atomic physics provides the underlying theory in plasma physics and atmospheric physics even though both deal with huge numbers of atoms.

Electronic configuration

Electrons form notional shells around the nucleus. These are naturally in a ground state but can be excited by the absorption of energy from light (photons), magnetic fields, or interaction with a colliding particle (typically other electrons). The excited electron may still be bound to the nucleus and should, after a certain period of time, decay back to the original ground state. The energy is released as a photon. There are strict selection rules as to the electronic configurations that can be reached by excitation by light—however there are no such rules for excitation by collision processes.

An electron may be sufficiently excited so that it breaks free of the nucleus and is no longer part of the atom. The remaining system is an ion and the atom is said to have been ionized having been left in a charged state.

History and developments

The majority of fields in physics can be divided between theoretical work and experimental work and atomic physics is no exception. It is usually the case, but not always, that progress goes in alternate cycles from an experimental observation, through to a theoretical explanation followed by some predictions which may or may not be confirmed by experiment, and so on. Of course, the current state of technology at any given time can put limitations on what can be achieved experimentally and theoretically so it may take considerable time for theory to be refined.
Main article: Atomic theory

Clearly the earliest steps towards atomic physics was the recognition that matter was composed of atoms, in the modern sense of the basic unit of a chemical element. This theory was developed by the British chemist and physicist John Dalton in the 18th century. At this stage, it wasn't clear what atoms were although they could be described and classified by their properties (in bulk) in a periodic table.
Main article: Basics of quantum mechanics

The true beginning of atomic physics is marked by the discovery of spectral lines and attempts to describe the phenomenon, most notably by Joseph von Fraunhofer. The study of these lines led to the Bohr atom model and to the birth of quantum mechanics itself. In seeking to explain atomic spectra an entirely new mathematical model of matter was revealed. As far as atoms and their electron shells were concerned, not only did this yield a better overall description, i.e. the atomic orbital model, but it also provided a new theoretical basis for chemistry (quantum chemistry) and spectroscopy.

Since the Second World War, both theoretical and experimental fields have advanced at a great pace. This can be attributed to progress in computing technology which has allowed bigger and more sophisticated models of atomic structure and associated collision processes. Similar technological advances in accelerators, detectors, magnetic field generation and lasers have greatly assisted experimental work.

Compressed-air engine

2009-04-06T10:12:00.001-07:00

A Compressed-air engine is a Pneumatic actuator that creates useful work by expanding compressed air. They have existed in many forms over the past two centuries, ranging in size from hand held turbines up to several hundred horsepower. Some types rely on pistons and cylinders, others use turbines. Many compressed air engines improve their performance by heating the incoming air, or the engine itself. Some took this a stage further and burned fuel in the cylinder or turbine, forming a type of internal combustion engine.

Tools

Impact wrenches, drills, die grinders, dental drills and other pneumatic tools use a variety of air engines or motors. These include vane type pumps, turbines and pistons.

Torpedoes

Most successful early forms of self propelled torpedoes used high pressure compressed air, although this was superseded by internal or external combustion engines, steam engines, or electric motors.

Railways

Compressed air engines were used in trams and shunters, and eventually found a successful niche in mining locomotives, although eventually they were replaced by electric trains, underground. Over the years designs increased in complexity, resulting in a triple expansion engine with air to air reheaters between each stage.

Aircraft

Transport category airplanes, such as commercial airliners, use compressed air starters to start the main engines. The air is supplied by the load compressor of the aircraft's auxiliary power unit, or by ground equipment.

Automotive

There is currently some interest in developing air cars. Several engines have been proposed for these, although none have demonstrated the performance and long life needed for personal transport.

Energine

The Energine Corporation is a South Korean company that delivers fully-assembled cars running on a hybrid compressed air and electric engine. The compressed-air engine is used to activate an alternator, which extends the autonomous operating capacity of the car.

EngineAir

EngineAir, an Australian company, is making a rotary engine powered by compressed air, called The Di Pietro motor. The Di Pietro motor concept is based on a rotary piston. Different from existing rotary engines, the Di Pietro motor uses a simple cylindrical rotary piston (shaft driver) which rolls, with little friction, inside the cylindrical stator.

It can be used in boat, cars, carriers and other vehicles. Only 1 psi (≈ 6,8 kPa) of pressure is needed to overcome the friction.

K'Airmobiles

K'Airmobiles vehicles use a compressed-air engine known as the K'Air, developed in France by a small group of researchers

These engines have a consumption of compressed air of less than 120 L/min., although developing a dynamic push able to reach 4kN.

The technical concept of the K'Air pneumatic engines returns to direct conversion of what makes the fundamental characteristic of compressed air, namely:

* the pushing force of compressed air is exclusively exploited for conversion into kinetic energy of translation,
* itself is simultaneously converted into induced power of rotation of the axis and
* thus gives to the engine a particularly imposing torque while needing only a very low “fuel” consumption.

To simplify, one can compare the principle to that of the rotary jacks:

* the energy of the fluid (compressed air) is directly transformed into rotational movement;
* the double-acting jacks involve a pinion-toothed rack system;
* the cyclic angle of rotation can vary between 90 and 360°;
* it supports hydraulic supercharging systems.

MDI

In the original Nègre air engine, one piston compresses air from the atmosphere to mix with the stored compressed air (which will cool drastically as it expands). This mixture drives the second piston, providing the actual engine power. MDI's engine works with constant torque, and the only way to change the torque to the wheels is to use a pulley transmission of constant variation, losing some efficiency. When vehicle is stopped, MDI's engine had to be on and working, losing energy. In 2001-2004 MDI switched to a design similar to that described in Regusci's patents (see below), which date back to 1990.

Quasiturbine

The Pneumatic Quasiturbine engine is a compressed air pistonless rotary engine using a rhomboidal-shaped rotor whose sides are hinged at the vertices.

The Quasiturbine has demonstrated as a pneumatic engine using stored compressed air .

It can also take advantage of the energy amplification possible from using available external heat, such as solar energy.

The Quasiturbine rotates from pressure as low as 0.1 atm.

Since the Quasiturbine is a pure expansion engine (which the Wankel is not, nor are most other rotary engines), it is well suitable as compressed fluid engine - Air engine or air motor.

Regusci

Armando Regusci's version of the air engine couples the transmission system directly to the wheel, and has variable torque from zero to the maximum, enhancing efficiency. Regusci's patents date back to 1990,

Team Psycho-Active

Psycho-Active is developing a multi-fuel/air-hybrid chassis which is intended to serve as the foundation for a line of automobiles. Claimed performance is 50 hp/litre

Karts

At least one Kart has been powered by a quasiturbine.

Efficient air engines

One could make the compressed air engines much more efficient than they are now (15%) by for example:

* Using the heat energy from the compressor (ALL energy used to run the compressor is converted to heat due to friction),
* shut down the air after a while ("cutoff"),
* Expand the air in several various stages and heat the air again between the expansions by ordinary air (in a heat exchanger),

Aviation and the environment

2009-04-06T10:07:00.002-07:00

Aviation impacts the environment because aircraft engines emit noise, particulates, gases, contribute to climate change and global dimming. Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines, the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006.

There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account.

Climate change

Like all human activities involving combustion, most forms of aviation release carbon dioxide (CO2) into the Earth's atmosphere, very likely contributing to the acceleration of global warming.

In addition to the CO2 released by most aircraft in flight through the burning of fuels such as Jet-A (turbine aircraft) or Avgas (piston aircraft), the aviation industry also contributes greenhouse gas emissions from ground airport vehicles and those used by passengers and staff to access airports, as well as through emissions generated by the production of energy used in airport buildings, the manufacture of aircraft and the construction of airport infrastructure.

While the principal greenhouse gas emission from powered aircraft in flight is CO2, other emissions may include nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, (together termed oxides of nitrogen or NOx), water vapour and particulates (soot and sulfate particles), sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide (which bonds with oxygen to become CO2 immediately upon release), incompletely-burned hydrocarbons, tetra-ethyl lead (piston aircraft only), and radicals such as hydroxyl, depending on the type of aircraft in use.[citation needed]

The contribution of civil aircraft-in-flight to global CO2 emissions has been estimated at around 2%. However, in the case of high-altitude airliners which frequently fly near or in the stratosphere, non-CO2 altitude-sensitive effects may increase the total impact on anthropogenic (man-made) climate change significantly —[citation needed] this problem is not present for aircraft that routinely operate at lower altitudes well inside the troposphere, such as balloons, airships, helicopters, most light aircraft, and many commuter aircraft.

Mechanisms

Subsonic aircraft-in-flight contribute to climate change in four ways:

Carbon dioxide (CO2)
CO2 emissions from aircraft-in-flight are the most significant and best understood element of aviation's total contribution to climate change. The level and effects of CO2 emissions are currently believed to be broadly the same regardless of altitude (i.e they have the same atmospheric effects as ground based emissions). In 1992, emissions of CO2 from aircraft were estimated at around 2% of all such anthropogenic emissions, though CO2 concentration attributable to aviation in 1992 was around 1% of the total anthropogenic increase, because emissions occurred only in the last 50 years.

Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
At the high altitudes flown by large jet airliners around the tropopause, emissions of NOx are particularly effective in forming ozone (O3) in the upper troposphere. High altitude (8-13km) NOx emissions result in greater concentrations of O3 than surface NOx emissions, and these in turn have a greater global warming effect. The effect of O3 concentrations are regional and local (as opposed to CO2 emissions, which are global).

NOx emissions also reduce ambient levels of methane, another greenhouse gas, resulting in a climate cooling effect. This effect does not, however, offset the O3 forming effect of NOx emissions. It is now believed that aircraft sulfur and water emissions in the stratosphere tend to deplete O3, partially offsetting the NOx-induced O3 increases. These effects have not been quantified. This problem does not apply to aircraft that fly lower in the troposphere, such as light aircraft or many commuter aircraft.

Water vapor (H2O)

Contrails

Very large aircraft-in-flight at high altitude emit water vapour, a greenhouse gas, which under certain atmospheric conditions forms Condensation trails, or contrails. Contrails are visible line clouds that form in cold, humid atmospheres and are thought to have a global warming effect (though one less significant than either CO2 emissions or NOx induced effects) SPM-2. Contrails are extremely rare from lower-altitude aircraft, or from propeller aircraft or rotorcraft.

Cirrus clouds have been observed to develop after the persistent formation of contrails and have been found to have a global warming effect over-and-above that of contrail formation alone. There is a degree of scientific uncertainty over the contribution of contrail and cirrus cloud formation to global warming and attempts to estimate aviation's overall climate change contribution do not tend to include its effects on cirrus cloud enhancement.

Particulates
Least significant is the release of soot and sulfate particles. Soot absorbs heat and has a warming effect; sulfate particles reflect radiation and have a small cooling effect. In addition, they can influence the formation and properties of clouds. All aircraft powered by combustion will release some amount of soot.

Total effect

In attempting to aggregate and quantify these effects the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that aviation’s total climate impact is some 2-4 times that of its CO2 emissions alone (excluding the potential impact of cirrus cloud enhancement). This is measured as radiative forcing. While there is uncertainty about the exact level of impact of NOx and water vapour, governments have accepted the broad scientific view that they do have an effect. Accordingly, more recent UK government policy statements have stressed the need for aviation to address its total climate change impacts and not simply the impact of CO2.

The IPCC has estimated that aviation is responsible for around 3.5% of anthropogenic climate change, a figure which includes both CO2 and non-CO2 induced effects. The IPCC has produced scenarios estimating what this figure could be in 2050. The central case estimate is that aviation’s contribution could grow to 5% of the total contribution by 2050 if action is not taken to tackle these emissions, though the highest scenario is 15%[7]. Moreover, if other industries achieve significant cuts in their own greenhouse gas emissions, aviation’s share as a proportion of the remaining emissions could also rise. Per passenger kilometre, figures from British Airways suggest carbon dioxide emissions of 0.1kg for large jet airliners (a figure which does not account for the production of other pollutants or condensation trails).

Potential reductions

Modern jet aircraft are significantly more fuel efficient (and thus emit less CO2 in particular) than 30 years ago. . Moreover, manufacturers have forecast and are committed to achieving reductions in both CO2 and NOx emissions with each new generation of design of aircraft and engine. The accelerated introduction of more modern aircraft therefore represents a major opportunity to reduce emissions per passenger kilometre flown.[citation needed]

Other opportunities arise from the optimisation of airline timetables, route networks and flight frequencies to increase load factors (minimise the number of empty seats flown), together with the optimisation of airspace.

Another possible reduction of the climate-change impact is the limitation of cruise altitude of aircraft. This would lead to a significant reduction in high-altitude contrails for a marginal trade-off of increased flight time and an estimated 4% increase in CO2 emissions. Drawbacks of this solution include very limited airspace capacity to do this, especially in Europe and North America and increased fuel burn due to jet aircraft being less efficient at lower cruise altitudes.

However, the total number of passenger kilometres is growing at a faster rate than manufacturers can reduce emissions, and at present there is no readily available alternative to burning kerosene. The growth in the aviation sector is therefore likely to continue to generate an increasing volume of greenhouse gas emissions. However some scientists and companies such as GE Aviation and Virgin Fuels are researching biofuel technology for use in jet aircraft. As part of this test Virgin Atlantic Airways flew a Boeing 747 from London Heathrow Airport to Amsterdam Schiphol Airport on 24 February 2008, with one engine burning a combination of coconut oil and babassu oil. Greenpeace's chief scientist Doug Parr said that the flight was "high-altitude greenwash" and that producing organic oils to make biofuel could lead to deforestation and a large increase in greenhouse gas emissions.

The majority of the world's aircraft are not large jetliners but smaller piston aircraft, and many are capable of using ethanol as a fuel, with major modifications. While ethanol also releases CO2 during combustion, the plants cultivated to make it draw that same CO2 out of the atmosphere while they are growing, making the fuel closer to climate-change-neutral. The only problem is the US government's choice of using ethanol from corn since it takes more energy to produce than is returned, it displaces food crops and thus raises the price of food and causes soil degradation.

While they are not suitable for long-haul or transoceanic flights, turboprop aircraft used for commuter flights bring two significant benefits: they often burn considerably less fuel per passenger mile, and they typically fly at lower altitudes, well inside the tropopause, where there are no concerns about ozone or contrail production. For even shorter flights, air taxi service using newer, fuel-efficient four- or six-seat light piston aircraft could provide an even lower environmental impact.

Reducing travel

An alternative method for reducing the environmental impact of aviation is to constrain demand for air travel. The UK study Predict and Decide - Aviation, climate change and UK policy, notes that a 10 per cent increase in fares generates a 5 to 15 per cent reduction in demand, and recommends that the British government should manage demand rather than provide for it. This would be accomplished via a strategy that presumes "… against the expansion of UK airport capacity" and constrains demand by the use of economic instruments to price air travel less attractively. A study published by the campaign group Aviation Environment Federation (AEF) concludes that by levying £9 billion of additional taxes the annual rate of growth in demand in the UK for air travel would be reduced to 2 per cent. The ninth report of the House of Commons Environmental Audit Select Committee, published in July 2006, recommends that the British government rethinks its airport expansion policy and considers ways, particularly via increased taxation, in which future demand can be managed in line with industry performance in achieving fuel efficiencies, so that emissions are not allowed to increase in absolute terms.

Kyoto Protocol

Greenhouse gas emissions from fuel consumption in international aviation, in contrast to those from domestic aviation and from energy use by airports, are not assigned under the first round of the Kyoto Protocol, neither are the non-CO2 climate effects. In place of agreement, Governments agreed to work through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to limit or reduce emissions and to find a solution to the allocation of emissions from international aviation in time for the second round of Kyoto in 2009 in Copenhagen.

Emissions trading

As part of that process the ICAO has endorsed the adoption of an open emissions trading system to meet CO2 emissions reduction objectives. Guidelines for the adoption and implementation of a global scheme are currently being developed, and will be presented to the ICAO Assembly in 2007, although the prospects of a comprehensive inter-governmental agreement on the adoption of such a scheme are uncertain.

Within the European Union, however, the European Commission has resolved to incorporate aviation in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). A new directive has been adopted by the European Parliament in July 2008 and approved by the Council in October 2008. It will enter into force on 1 January 2012.

Noise

Aircraft noise is seen by advocacy groups as being very hard to get attention and action on. The fundamental issues are increased traffic at larger airports and airport expansion at smaller and regional airports.

Audubon Nature Institute

2009-04-06T10:07:00.001-07:00

The Audubon Nature Institute is family of museums and parks dedicated to nature based in New Orleans, Louisiana. It consists of the Audubon Zoo, Aquarium of the Americas, Audubon Louisiana Nature Center, Audubon Park, Woldenberg Riverfront Park, Freeport-McMoRan Audubon Species Survival Center, Entergy IMAX Theatre, Audubon Center for Research of Endangered Species (ACRES), Audubon Wilderness Park, and the Audubon Insectarium.

The institute was the executive producer of "Hurricane on the Bayou", an IMAX film released on the anniversary of Hurricane Katrina's landfall in 2006.

The institute is no longer a part of the National Wetlands Coalition, but it is a "cooperating organization" with America's Wetland Campaign, which is sponsored by British Gas, Citgo, ConocoPhillips, and other energy companies.

Atomic Testing Museum

2009-04-06T10:05:00.000-07:00

The museum covers the period from the first test at NTS on January 27, 1951 to the present. Among its exhibits covering American nuclear history is a "Ground Zero Theater" which simulates the experience of observing an atmospheric nuclear test. Other exhibits include Geiger counters, radio badges and radiation testing devices, Native American artifacts from around the test area, pop culture memorabilia related to the atomic age, equipment used in testing the devices. Other displays focus on important figures at the facility, videos and interactive exhibits about radiation.

The museum is operated by the Nevada Test Site Historical Foundation, a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization, in association with the Smithsonian Institution. Some support comes from the purchase of commemorative Nevada Test Site license plates issued by the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles.

Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge

2009-04-06T10:03:00.002-07:00

The Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge is a protected wildlife refuge, administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, located 90 miles (145 km) west-northwest of Las Vegas, Nevada, in southern Nye County. The refuge was created on June 18, 1984. This 23,000 acres (90 km²) refuge is part of the larger Desert National Wildlife Refuge Complex, which also includes the Desert National Wildlife Refuge, the Moapa Valley National Wildlife Refuge, the Pahranagat National Wildlife Refuge, and the Amargosa Pupfish Station.

The refuge was established to provide habitat for at least 24 indigenous plants and animals found nowhere else in the world. Four fish and one plant are currently listed as endangered. This concentration of indigenous life distinguishes Ash Meadows as having a greater concentration of endemic life than any other local area in the United States and the second greatest in all of North America.

Ash Meadows provides a valuable and unprecedented example of desert oases that are now extremely uncommon in the southwest United States. The refuge is a major discharge point for a vast underground water system stretching more than 100 miles (160 km) to the northeast. Water-bearing strata come to the surface in more than 30 seeps and springs, providing a rich, complex variety of habitats. North and west are the remnants of Carson Slough, which was drained and mined for its peat in the 1960s. Sand dunes appear in the western and southern parts of the refuge. Numerous stream channels and wetlands are scattered throughout the refuge. Virtually all of the water at Ash Meadows is "fossil" water, believed to have entered the ground water system thousands of years ago.

Ancient woodland

2009-04-06T10:03:00.001-07:00

‘Ancient Woodland’ is a term used in the United Kingdom to refer specifically to woodland dating back to 1600 or before in England and Wales (or 1750 in Scotland). Before this, planting of new woodland was uncommon, so a wood present in 1600 was likely to have developed naturally.

For many species of animal and plant, Ancient Woodland sites provide the sole habitat, and for many others, conditions on these sites are much more suitable than those on other sites. Ancient Woodland is the UK's equivalent of rainforest, home to more rare and threatened species than any other UK habitat. For these reasons Ancient Woodland is often described as an irreplaceable resource, or 'critical natural capital'.

Ancient Woodland is formally defined on maps by Natural England and equivalent bodies, and is given a degree of administrative protection.

The analogous American term is "old growth forest".

Characteristics

The definition of Ancient Woodland includes several sub-types. Ancient Semi-Natural Woodland (ASNW) is composed of native tree species that have not obviously been planted. Planted Ancient Woodland Sites (PAWS) (also known as Ancient Replanted Woodlands) are ancient woods in which the former tree cover has been replaced, often with non-native trees; features of Ancient Woodland often survive in many of these woods too, including characteristic wildlife, and structures of archaeological interest.

Species which are particularly characteristic of Ancient Woodland sites are called Ancient Woodland Indicator (AWI) species, an ecological indicator. The term tends to be applied more commonly to plant species than to animals, as they are slower to colonise planted woodlands, and are thus viewed as more reliable indicators of Ancient Woodland sites. Lists of Ancient Woodland Indicator species among vascular plants were developed by the Nature Conservancy Council (now Natural England) for each region of England – each list containing the hundred most reliable indicators for that region. The methodology used involved studying the flora of known woodland sites and analysing occurrence patterns to determine which species were most indicative of sites which existed before 1600. Although Ancient Woodland indicator species can and do occur in post-1600 woodlands, and also in non-woodland sites such as hedgerows, it is uncommon for a site which is not Ancient Woodland to host a double-figure AWI species total.

Ancient Woodland Inventories

Ancient Woodland sites over 20,000 square metres (5 acres) in size are recorded in Ancient Woodland Inventories, compiled in the 1980s and 1990s by the Nature Conservancy Council in England, Wales, and Scotland; and maintained by its successor organisations in those countries. There was no inventory in Northern Ireland until the Woodland Trust completed one in 2006.

Decline

Britain's Ancient Woodland cover has declined greatly. Since the 1930s almost half of ancient broadleaved woodland in England and Wales has been planted with conifers or cleared for agriculture. Only 3,090 square kilometres (760,000 acres) of ancient semi-natural woodland survive in Britain – less than 20% of the total wooded area. More than eight out of ten Ancient Woodland sites in England and Wales are less than 200,000 square metres (49 acres) in area, only 501 exceed 1 square kilometre (250 acres) and a mere fourteen are larger than 3 square kilometres (740 acres).

Management

Most Ancient Woodland in the UK has been managed in some way by humans for hundreds (in some cases possibly thousands) of years. Two traditional techniques are coppicing (harvesting wood by cutting trees back to ground level) and pollarding (harvesting wood at about human head height to prevent new shoots being eaten by grazing species such as deer). Both techniques encourage new growth while allowing the sustainable production of timber and other woodland produce. During the 20th century, use of such traditional management techniques has declined while there has been an increase in large-scale mechanised forestry. These changes in management methods resulted in changes to Ancient Woodland habitats, and a loss of Ancient Woodland to forestry.

Examples

* Coldfall Wood, London
* Edford Woods and Meadows, Somerset
* Forest of Dean West Gloucestershire
* Foxley Wood, Norfolk
* Grass Wood, Wharfedale, Yorkshire
* Hatfield Forest, Essex
* Highgate Wood, London
* Holt Heath, Dorset
* Parkhurst Forest, Isle of Wight
* Queen's Wood, London
* Vincients Wood, Wiltshire
* Wentwood, Monmouthshire
* Whinfell Forest, Cumbria
* Wormshill, Kent: Barrows Wood, Trundle Wood and High Wood
* Wyre Forest bordering Shropshire and Worcestershire

Amoco Cadiz

2009-04-06T10:02:00.000-07:00

The Amoco Cadiz was a VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier), owned by Amoco, that split in two after running aground on Portsall Rocks, three miles (5 km) off the coast of Brittany (France), on March 16, 1978, resulting at that time in the largest oil spill ever, currently the fifth-largest in history (though this ranking may vary depending on criteria).

Sequence of events

En route from the Persian Gulf to Rotterdam, the Netherlands, via a scheduled stop at Lyme Bay, Great Britain, the ship encountered stormy weather with gale conditions and high seas while in the English Channel. At around 09:45 a.m., a heavy wave hit the ship's rudder and it was found that she was no longer responding to the helm. This was due to the shearing of Whitworth thread studs in the Hastie four ram steering gear, built under licence in Spain, causing a loss of hydraulic fluid. Attempts to repair the damage were made but proved unsuccessful. While the message "no longer manoeuvrable" and asking other vessels to stand by was transmitted at 10:20 a.m., no call for tug assistance was issued until 11:20 a.m.

The German tug Pacific responded and contacted the Amoco Cadiz at 11:28 a.m., offering assistance under a Lloyds Open Form (see below). It arrived on the scene at 12:20 p.m., but because of the stormy sea, a tow line was not in place until 2 p.m. and broke off at 4:15 p.m.. Several attempts were made to establish another tow line and the Amoco Cadiz dropped its anchor trying to halt its drift. Finally a successful tow line was in place at 8:55 p.m. Yet these measures proved incapable of preventing the supertanker from drifting towards the coast because of its huge mass and the Force 10 storm winds.

At 9:04 p.m., the Amoco Cadiz hit the bottom for the first time, flooding its engines. It grounded again at 9:39 p.m., this time ripping the hull and starting the oil spill. Its crew was rescued by helicopters of the French Navy at midnight, except the captain and one officer who remained on board until 5:00 the next morning.

At 10 a.m., March 17, the supertanker broke in two, releasing its entire cargo of 1.6 million barrels (250,000 m3). Because of the ongoing storm, it broke again on March 28 and the wreck was later completely destroyed by depth charges from the French Navy.

The wreck of the Amoco Cadiz is located at [show location on an interactive map] 48°36.00′N 04°46.00′W / 48.6°N 4.76667°W / 48.6; -4.76667.

Lloyds Open Form

An argument arose between the captain of the Amoco Cadiz, Pasquale Bardari, and that of the captain of the German Tug Pacific, Hartmut Weinert, on the issue of LOF (Lloyds Open Form). Captain Weinert thought this a classic LOF case, an oil tanker with damage to its steering gear, rough weather and getting closer to the shore by the minute.

Lloyds Open Form is a standard legal document for a proposed salvage operation, a four page long contract published by the famous Lloyds of London. It is called "open" because it is literally open, with no amount of money being stipulated for the salvage job: The sum to be paid is determined later in London by a professional arbitrator. At the top of page one, beneath the title "Salvage Agreement" is a statement of the contract's fundamental premise. "NO CURE - NO PAY!"

The Arbitrator, who is invariably a Queen's Counsel practising at the Admiralty Bar, follows the English law of civil salvage, in determining the salvage award. The values of the ship, its cargo and freight at risk are taken into account when the arbitrator decides what the award should be, together with the extent of the dangers and the difficulty in effecting the salvage. In 1978, the ship and the cargo were valued at about $40 million dollars, so Captain Weinert's company could, in the event of success, have received a large award. Captain Bardari of the Cadiz, on the instructions of his owners, wanted "...towage rate to Lyme Bay."

The argument dragged on from 11:28am when the Pacific first made contact with the Amoco Cadiz until 4:00pm when Captain Bardari finally received approval to accept the LOF from the ship's owners in Chicago. However, this dispute did not delay the salvage operation significantly, because tugging preparations had already started. Captain Weinert was aware that if he were to succeed in bringing the tanker into Lyme Bay, on the English coast, his owners could arrest the ship in the English High Court in pursuit of a claim for salvage.

It was incorrectly reported in the Press at the time that, after long negotiations on financial terms between the ship's captain and the master of a West German tugboat and two unsuccessful towing attempts, the towline finally broke during the argument and the ship drifted on the rocks. This version of events became fixed in the public mind although in fact delay was caused by Captain Bardari of the Amoco Cadiz contacting his owners in Chicago for instructions. The delay in sending a distress message meant that the larger tug Seefalke, which might have been in range an hour earlier, had proceeded out of range by the time the distress call was made.

Solanum mauritianum

2009-04-04T09:03:00.001-07:00

Solanum mauritianum is a small tree or shrub native to South America. It's common names include Woolly Nightshade, Ear-leaved Nightshade (or "earleaf nightshade"), Flannel Weed, Bugweed, Tobacco Weed and Kerosene Plant.

The plant has a life of up to thirty years, and can grow up to 10 m tall. Its large oval leaves are grey-green in color and covered with felt-like hairs. The flower is purple with a yellow center. The plant can flower year round but fruiting occurs in late spring to early summer. It is tolerant of many soil types and quickly becomes established around plantations, forest margins, scrub and open land.

S. mauritianum is a favoured food plant of the African Olive-pigeon (Columba arquatrix). This is bizarre given the plant and birds ranges do not overlap. It is poisonous for many other organisms, including humans. The main toxic compound in S. mauritianum is the steroid alkaloid solasodine.

As invasive species

Woolly nightshade has naturalized in New Zealand. It arrived there by 1880, and is now well established from Taupo northward. Woolly nightshade is poisonous and handling the plants can cause irritation and nausea. The dust from the plant can cause respiratory problems if exposure is prolonged. Because of its ability to affect human health and because of its aggressive and fast growing character it is illegal in some areas of New Zealand to sell, propagate, or distribute any part of the plant.

This plant has also become naturalized in Australia, particularly on the east coast. In Australia this plant is known colloquially as "wild tobacco", although Australia possesses many species of Nicotiana which are more correctly known as wild tobaccos.

Salvinia molesta

2009-04-04T09:02:00.001-07:00

Salvinia molesta, commonly known as Giant salvinia or kariba weed after it infested a large portion of the reservoir of the same name, is an aquatic fern, native to south-eastern Brazil. It is a free floating plant that does not attach to the soil, but instead remains buoyant on the surface of a body of water. The fronds are 0.5-4 cm long and broad, with a bristly surface, and produced in pairs also with a third modified root-like frond that hangs in the water.

It reproduces by asexual reproduction only, but it is capable of growing extremely quickly, starting from small fragments and doubling in population size every few days, with the result that the surface of ponds, reservoirs, and lakes are covered by a floating mat 10-20 cm (in some rare cases up to 60 cm) thick. As a consequence, it has sometimes considered an invasive weed in some parts of the world. The plant's growth blocks sunlight needed by other aquatic plants and especially algae to oxygenate the water.

A tiny weevil, Cyrtobagous salviniae, found in the native habitat of S. molesta, is currently being studied as a biocontrol.

Prosopis

2009-04-04T08:57:00.001-07:00

Prosopis is a genus of about 45 species of leguminous spiny trees and shrubs found in subtropical and tropical regions of the Americas, Africa and southwest Asia. They often thrive in arid soil and are resistant to droughts, on occasion developing extremely deep root systems. Their wood is usually hard, dense and durable. Their fruits are pods and may contain large amounts of sugar.

Species

Some of the species in this genus are:

* Mesquites (southern United States, Mexico)
o Prosopis glandulosa – Honey Mesquite; haas (Cmiique Iitom)
o Prosopis pallida – American Carob, huarango, kiawe
o Prosopis pubescens – Screwbean Mesquite, "tornillo"
o Prosopis reptans – "tornillo"
o Prosopis strombulifera – Creeping Mesquite
o Prosopis velutina – Velvet Mesquite
* "Algarrobos", bayahondas etc. (Neotropics, particularly the Gran Chaco)
o Prosopis affinis – Ñandubay, Algarrobillo, Espinillo, Ibopé-Morotí
o Prosopis alba – Algarrobo blanco; ibopé or igopé (Guaraní)
+ Prosopis alba var. panta – Algarrobo panta
o Prosopis caldenia – Caldén
o Prosopis chilensis – Algarrobo chileno
o Prosopis fiebrigii
o Prosopis flexuosa – Alpataco
o Prosopis hassleri
o Prosopis juliflora – Bayahonda blanca, Bayarone Français; Kabuli Kikar, Vilayati Babul, Vilayati Khejra or Vilayati Kikar (Hindi); trupillo or turpío (Wayuunaiki)
o Prosopis kuntzei – Itín, Barba de tigre, Carandá, Palo mataco
o Prosopis nigra – Algarrobo negro, Algarrobo amarillo, Algarrobo dulce, Algarrobo morado
o Prosopis rojasiana
o Prosopis ruscifolia – Vinal
o Prosopis tamarugo – Tamarugo
* African species
o Prosopis africana
* Asian species (India - mainly Rajasthan - to Arabia)
o Prosopis cineraria – Jand; ghaf (Arabic); sami or sumri (Gujarati); khejri, sangri (Rajasthani); kandi (Sindhi)

Walking catfish

2009-04-04T08:55:00.002-07:00

The walking catfish, Clarias batrachus, is a species of freshwater airbreathing catfish found primarily in Southeast Asia, so named for its ability to "walk" across dry land, to find food or suitable environments. While it does not truly walk as most bipeds or quadrupeds do, it has the ability to use its pectoral fins to keep it upright as it makes a sort of wiggling motion with snakelike movements. It can survive using this form of locomotion as long as it stays moist. This fish normally lives in slow-moving and often stagnant waters in ponds, swamps, streams and rivers (Mekong and Chao Phraya basins), flooded rice paddies or temporary pools which may dry up. When this happens, its "walking" skill comes in handy for moving to other sources of water.

Characteristics and anatomy

Walking catfish are around 30 cm (a foot or so) in length and have an elongated body shape. Often covered laterally in small white spots, the body is mainly colored a gray or grayish brown. This catfish has long-based dorsal and anal fins as well as several pairs of sensory barbels. The skin is scaleless but covered with mucus, which protects the fish when it is out of water.

One main distinction between the walking catfish and native North American Ictalurid catfish is the walking catfish's lack of an adipose fin.

This fish needs to be handled carefully when fishing it out due to its hidden embedded sting or thorn like defensive mechanism hidden behind its fins (including the middle ones before the tail fin).

A certain collective species of walking catfish found primarily in the vicinity of the Panama islands and southern America are large enough that they use their long whiskers as tentacle-like mechanisms. Some walking catfish use these “tentacles” to prey on smaller marine animals and even use them in their aid of walking”. Some rumors suggest that these catfish use their tentacle-like whiskers to pry open wires protecting private bodies of water to enter and prey on unsuspecting fish.
Magur - Clarias batrachus - sold in HAL market, Bangalore

Location and habitat

The walking catfish is a native of South East Asia including Malaysia, Thailand, eastern India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma, Indonesia, Singapore, and Borneo. It was probably introduced into the Philippines but now it is common elsewhere in this country. During its season in the Philippines, it is widely distributed throughout the country and many consumers buy this product alive. The catfish is a tropical animal and prefers a water temperature in the range of 10 - 28°C.

Walking catfish thrive in stagnant, frequently hypoxic waters, and are often found in muddy ponds, canals, ditches and similar habitats. The species spends most of its time on, or right above, the bottom surface, with occasional trips to the surface to gulp air.

Diet and eating habits

In the wild, the natural diet of this creature is omnivorous; it feeds on smaller fish, mollusks and other invertebrates as well as detritus and aquatic weeds. It is a voracious eater which consumes food rapidly and this habit makes it a particularly harmful invasive species.

As invasive species

In the United States it is a nonindigenous invasive species, which is now established in Florida and reported in California, Connecticut, Georgia, Massachusetts, and Nevada.

The walking catfish was imported to Florida, reportedly from Thailand, in the early 1960s for the aquarium trade. The first introductions apparently occurred in the mid-1960s when adult fish imported as brood stock escaped, either from a fish farm in northeastern Broward County or from a truck transporting brood fish between Dade and Broward counties. Additional introductions in Florida, supposedly purposeful releases, were made by fish farmers in the Tampa Bay area, Hillsborough County in late 1967 or early 1968, after the state banned the importation and possession of walking catfish. Aquarium releases likely are responsible for introductions in other states. Dill and Cordone (1997) reported that this species has been sold by tropical fish dealers in California for some time. They have also been spotted in the midwest a couple of times.

In Florida, walking catfish are known to have invaded aquaculture farms, entering ponds where these predators prey on fish stocks. In response, fish farmers have had to erect fences to protect ponds. Authorities have also created laws that banned possession of walking catfish.

Tree Sparrow

2009-04-04T08:55:00.001-07:00

The Tree Sparrow, Passer montanus, is a passerine bird in the family Passeridae with a rich chestnut crown and nape, and a black patch on each pure white cheek. The sexes are similarly plumaged, and young birds are a duller version of the adult. This sparrow breeds over most of temperate Eurasia and Southeast Asia, and has been introduced elsewhere, including the United States (where it is known as the Eurasian Tree Sparrow or German Sparrow to differentiate it from the native, unrelated American Tree Sparrow). Although several subspecies are recognised, the appearance of this bird varies little across its extensive range.

The Tree Sparrow's untidy nest is built in a natural cavity, a hole in a building or the large nest of a magpie or stork. The typical clutch is five or six eggs which hatch in under two weeks. This sparrow feeds mainly on seeds, but invertebrates are also consumed, particularly during the breeding season. As with other small birds, infection by parasites and diseases, and predation by birds of prey take their toll, and the typical life span is about two years.

The Tree Sparrow is widespread in the towns and cities of eastern Asia, but in Europe it is a bird of lightly-wooded open countryside, with the House Sparrow breeding in the more urban areas. The Tree Sparrow's extensive range and large population ensure that it is not endangered globally, but there have been large declines in in western European populations, in part due to changes in farming practices involving increased use of herbicides and loss of winter stubble fields. In eastern Asia and western Australia, this species is sometimes viewed as a pest, although it is also widely celebrated in oriental art.

Description

The Tree Sparrow is 12.5–14 cm (5–5½ in) long, with a wingspan of about 21 cm (8.25 in) and a weight of 24 g (0.86 oz), making it roughly 10% smaller than the House Sparrow. The adult's crown and nape are rich chestnut, and there is a kidney-shaped black ear patch on each pure white cheek; the chin, throat, and the area between the bill and throat are black. The upperparts are light brown, streaked with black, and the brown wings have two distinct narrow white bars. The legs are pale brown, and the bill is lead-blue in summer, becoming almost black in winter.

This sparrow is distinctive even within its genus in that it has no plumage differences between the sexes; the juvenile also resembles the adult, although the colours tend to be duller. Its contrasting face pattern makes this species easily identifiable in all plumages; the smaller size and brown, not grey, crown are additional differences from the male House Sparrow. Adult and juvenile Tree Sparrows undergo a slow complete moult in the autumn, and show an increase in body mass despite a reduction in stored fat. The change in mass is due to an increase in blood volume to support active feather growth, and a generally higher water content in the body.

The Tree Sparrow has no true song, but its vocalisations include an excited series of tschip calls given by unpaired or courting males. Other monosyllabic chirps are used in social contacts, and the flight call is a harsh teck. A study comparing the vocalisations of the introduced Missouri population with those of birds from Germany showed that the US birds had fewer shared syllable types (memes) and more structure within the population than the European sparrows. This may have resulted from the small size of the founding North American population and a consequent loss of genetic diversity.

Pistia

2009-04-04T08:54:00.002-07:00

Pistia is a genus of aquatic plant in the family Araceae, comprising a single species, Pistia stratiotes, often called water cabbage or water lettuce. Its native distribution is uncertain, but probably pantropical; it was first described from the Nile near Lake Victoria in Africa. It is now present, either naturally or through human introduction, in nearly all tropical and subtropical fresh waterways.

It floats on the surface of the water its roots hanging submersed beneath floating leaves. It is a perennial monocotyledon with thick, soft leaves that form a rosette. The leaves can be up to 14 cm long and have no stem. They are light green, with parallel veins, wavy margins and are covered in short hairs which form basket-like structures which trap air bubbles, increasing the plant's buoyancy. The flowers are dioecious, and are hidden in the middle of the plant amongst the leaves. Small green berries form after successful fertilization. The plant can also undergo asexual reproduction. Mother and daughter plants are connected by a short stolon, forming dense mats.

The growth habit can make it a weed in waterways. It is a common aquatic weed in the United States, particularly in Florida where it may clog waterways. It has the potential to reduce the biodiversity of a waterway. Mats of Pistia block gas exchange at the air-water interface, reducing the oxygen in the water and killing fish. They also block light, killing native submerged plants, and alter immersed plant communities by crushing them.

Pistia can be controlled by mechanical harvestors that remove the water lettuce from the water and transport it to disposal on shore. Aquatic herbicides may also be used. Two insects are also being used as a biological control. Adults and larvae of the South American weevil, Neohydronomous affinis feed on Pistia leaves, and the larvae of moth Spodoptera pectinicornis from Thailand. Both are proving to be useful tools in the management of Pistia.
SEM image of basket-like structures on surface of leaf

Water lettuce is often used in tropical aquariums to provide cover for fry and small fish. It is also helpful as it outcompetes algae for nutrients in the water, thereby preventing massive algal blooms.

Pine

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Pines are coniferous trees in the genus Pinus, in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.

Distribution

Pines are native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. In Eurasia, they range from the Canary Islands and Scotland east to the Russian Far East, and in the Philippines, north to just over 70°N in Norway (Scots Pine) and eastern Siberia (Siberian Dwarf Pine), and south to northernmost Africa, the Himalaya and Southeast Asia, with one species (Sumatran Pine) just crossing the Equator in Sumatra to 2°S. In North America, they range from 66°N in Canada (Jack Pine) south to 12°N in Nicaragua (Caribbean Pine). The highest diversity in the genus occurs in Mexico and California.

Pines have been introduced in subtropical and temperate portions of the Southern Hemisphere, including Chile, Brazil, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, where they are grown widely as a source of timber, and some species are becoming invasive.

Morphology

Pines are evergreen and resinous trees (rarely shrubs) growing to 3–80 m tall, with the majority of species reaching between 15-45 m tall. The smallest are Siberian Dwarf Pine and Potosi Pinyon, and the tallest, Sugar Pine. Pines are long-lived, typically reaching ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more. The longest-lived is the Great Basin Bristlecone Pine Pinus longaeva, one individual of which at 4,840 years old in 2008 is one of the oldest living organisms in the world.

The bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaking bark. The branches are produced in regular "pseudo whorls", actually a very tight spiral but appearing like a ring of branches arising from the same point. Many pines are uninodal, producing just one such whorl of branches each year, from buds at the tip of the year's new shoot, but others are multinodal, producing two or more whorls of branches per year. The spiral growth of branches, needles and cone scales are arranged in Fibonacci number ratios. The new spring shoots are sometimes called "candles"; they are covered in brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then later turn green and spread outward. These "candles" offer foresters a means to evaluate fertility of the soil and vigour of the trees.

Foliage

Pines have four types of leaves:

* Seed leaves (cotyledons) on seedlings, borne in a whorl of 4-24.

* Juvenile leaves, which follow immediately on seedlings and young plants, 2-6 cm long, single, green or often blue-green, and arranged spirally on the shoot. These are produced for six months to five years, rarely longer.

* Scale leaves, similar to bud scales, small, brown and non-photosynthetic, and arranged spirally like the juvenile leaves.

* Needles, the adult leaves, which are green (photosynthetic), bundled in clusters (fascicles) of (1-) 2-5 (-6) needles together, each fascicle produced from a small bud on a dwarf shoot in the axil of a scale leaf. These bud scales often remain on the fascicle as a basal sheath. The needles persist for 1.5-40 years, depending on species. If a shoot is damaged (e.g. eaten by an animal), the needle fascicles just below the damage will generate a bud which can then replace the lost leaves.

Cones

Pines are mostly monoecious, having the male and female cones on the same tree, though a few species are sub-dioecious with individuals predominantly, but not wholly, single-sex. The male cones are small, typically 1-5 cm long, and only present for a short period (usually in spring, though autumn in a few pines), falling as soon as they have shed their pollen. The female cones take 1.5-3 years (depending on species) to mature after pollination, with actual fertilization delayed one year. At maturity the female cones are 3-60 cm long. Each cone has numerous spirally arranged scales, with two seeds on each fertile scale; the scales at the base and tip of the cone are small and sterile, without seeds. The seeds are mostly small and winged, and are anemophilous (wind-dispersed), but some are larger and have only a vestigial wing, and are bird-dispersed (see below). At maturity, the cones usually open to release the seeds, but in some of the bird-dispersed species (e.g. Whitebark Pine), the seeds are only released by the bird breaking the cones open. In others, the fire climax pines (e.g. Monterey Pine, Pond Pine), the seeds are stored in closed ("serotinous") cones for many years until a forest fire kills the parent tree; the cones are also opened by the heat and the stored seeds are then released in huge numbers to re-populate the burnt ground.

Opuntia

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Opuntia, also known as nopales (see below), or Paddle Cactus from the resemblance to the ball-and-paddle toy, is a genus in the cactus family, Cactaceae.

Currently, only prickly pears are included in this genus of about 200 species distributed throughout most of the Americas. Chollas are now separated into the genus Cylindropuntia, which some still consider a subgenus of Opuntia. Austrocylindropuntia, Corynopuntia and Micropuntia are also often included in the present genus, but like Cylindropuntia they seem rather well distinct. Brasiliopuntia and Miqueliopuntia are closer relatives of Opuntia.

The most commonly culinary species is the Indian Fig Opuntia (O. ficus-indica). Most culinary uses of the term 'prickly pear' refer to this species. Prickly pears are also known as nopal or nopales, from the Nahuatl word nōpalli for the pads, or nostle, from the Nahuatl word nōchtli for the fruit; or Paddle Cactus (from the resemblance to the ball-and-paddle toy).

Description

Prickly pear cacti typically grow with flat, rounded platyclades that are armed with two kinds of spines; large, smooth, fixed spines and small, hairlike spines called glochids that easily penetrate skin and detach from the plant. Many types of prickly pears grow into dense, tangled structures.

Prickly pear species are found in abundance in the West and Southwest of the United States and throughout much of Mexico. Prickly pears are also the only types of cactus natively found to grow far east of the Great Plains states. Prickly pear species were introduced into Australia in the late 1800s, causing major ecological damage in the eastern states (see www.northwestweeds.nsw.gov.au). They are also found in the Mediterranean region of southern Europe, especially on the island nation of Malta where they grow on cactus found all over the island. Opuntia are the most cold-tolerant of the lowland cacti, extending into western and southern Canada; one subspecies, Opuntia fragilis var. fragilis, has been found growing along the Beatton River in central British Columbia, southwest of Cecil Lake at 56° 17’ N latitude and 120° 39’ W longitude. Prickly Pears also give a fruit that is known as "Tuna" in Mexico. The fruit can be red, wine-red or yellow-orange.

Charles Darwin was the first to note that these cacti have thigmotactic anthers: when the anthers are touched, they curl over, depositing their pollen. This movement can be seen by gently poking the anthers of an open Opuntia flower. The same trait has evolved convergently in other cacti (e.g. Lophophora).

Chollas

Chollas, now recognized to belong into a rather distinct genus Cylindropuntia, are distinguished by having cylindrical, rather than flattened, stem segments with the large barbed spines. The stem joints of several species, notably the jumping cholla (Cylindropuntia fulgida), are very brittle on young stems, readily breaking off when the barbed spines stick to clothing or animal skin as a method of vegetative reproduction. The barbed spines can remain embedded in the skin, causing significant discomfort and sometimes injury.

Eichhornia crassipes

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Eichhornia crassipes, commonly known as Common Water Hyacinth, is an invasive species of plant, which is native of Amazon basin. This plant is also used like a medicinal plant.

Invasion of Lake Victoria

The plant was introduced by Belgian colonists to Rwanda to beautify their holdings and then advanced by natural means to Lake Victoria where it was first sighted in 1988. There, without any natural enemies, it has become an ecological plague, suffocating the lake, diminishing the fish reservoir, and hurting the local economies. It impedes access to Kisumu and other harbors.

Ecology

Its habitat ranges from tropical desert to subtropical or warm temperate desert to rainforest zones. It tolerates annual precipitations of 8.2 dm to 27.0 dm (mean of 8 cases = 15.8 dm), annual temperatures from 21.1°C to 27.2°C (mean of 5 cases = 24.9°C), and its pH tolerance is estimated at 5.0 to 7.5. It does not tolerate water temperatures >34°C. Leaves are killed by frost and salt water, the latter trait being used to kill some of it by floating rafts of the cut weed to the sea. Water hyacinths do not grow when the average salinity is greater than 15% that of sea water. In brackish water, its leaves show epinasty and chlorosis, and eventually die.

Neochetinia eichhorniae causes "a substantial reduction in water hyacinth production" (in Louisiana); it reduces plant height, weight, root length, and makes the plant produce fewer daughter plants. Neochetinia eichhorniae was imported from Argentina to Florida in 1972.

Azotobacter chroococcum, an N-fixing bacteria, is probably concentrated around the bases of the petioles. But it doesn't fix N unless the plant is suffering extreme N-deficiency.

Fresh plants contain prickly crystals. This plant is reported to contain HCN, alkaloid, and triterpenoid, and may induce itching. Plants sprayed with 2,4-D may accumulate lethal doses of nitrates, as well as various other nocive elements in polluted environments. See further down.

Uses

Bioenergy

Because of its extremely high rate of development, Eichhornia crassipes is an excellent source of biomass. One hectare of standing crop can thus produce more than 70,000 m3 of biogas. According to Curtis and Duke, one kg of dry matter can yield 370 liters of biogas, giving a heating value of 22,000 KJ/m3 (580 Btu/ft3) compared to pure methane (895 Btu/ft3)

Wolverton and McDonald report only 0.2 m3 methane 7 per kg, indicating requirements of 350 MT biomass/ha to attain the 70,000 m3 yield projected by the National Academy of Sciences (Washington). Ueki and Kobayashi mention more than 200 MT/ha/yr.[10] Reddy and Tucker got an experimental maximum of more than a half ton a day. Bengali farmers collect and pile up these plants to dry at the onset of the cold season; they then use the dry water hyacinths as fuel. They then use the ashes as fertilizer. In India, a ton of dried water hyacinth yield circa 50 liters ethanol and 200 kg residual fiber (7,700 Btu). Bacterial fermentation of one ton yields 26,500 cu ft gas (600 Btu) with 51.6% methane, 25.4% hydrogen, 22.1% CO2, and 1.2% oxygen. Gasification of one ton dry matter by air and steam at high temperatures (800°) gives circa 40,000 ft3 (circa 1,100 m3) natural gas (143 Btu/cu ft?) containing 16.6% H3, 4.8% methane, 21.7% CO, 4.1% CO2, and 52.8% N. The high moisture content of water hyacinth, adding so much to handling costs, tends to limit commercial ventures. A continuous, hydraulic production system could be designed, which would provide a better utilization of capital investments than in conventional agriculture, which is essentially a batch operation.

The labour involved in harvesting water hyacinth can be greatly reduced by locating collection sites and processors on impoundments that take advantage of prevailing winds. Wastewater treatment systems could also favourably be added to this operation. The harvested biomass would then be converted to ethanol, natural gas, hydrogen and / or gaseous nitrogen, and fertilizer. The byproduct of water and fertilizer can both be used to irrigate nearby cropland

Channa striata

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The snakehead murrel, Channa striata, is a species of snakehead. It is also known as the common snakehead, chevron snakehead, striped snakehead and aruan or haruan, and has also been classified under the binomial names Ophiocephalus striatus Bloch and Ophiocephalus vagus Peters.

It grows up to 1 m in length, though because of fishing this size is not found in the wild. It has a widespread range covering southern China, Pakistan, most of India, southern Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and most of South-east Asia. It has more recently been introduced to the outmost parts of Indonesia, the Philippines, and Mauritius. Reports beginning in the early 20th century that it was introduced into the wild in Hawaii, particularly the island of Oahu, are the apparent result of misidentifications, according to a publication. The only currently confirmed Hawaiian establishment of C. striata is on a commercial fish farm. Popular media and the US Fish and Wildlife Service were perpetuating this apparent mistake as recently as 2002. Early- to mid-20th century reports and texts referring to its introduction in California appear to be the result of a misunderstanding.

It is an important food fish in its native range and is of considerable economic importance. Adults are dark brown in colour with faint black bands visible across its entire body. Males and female both help to construct a nest out of water vegetation during breeding time and the eggs are guarded by the male.

It is common in freshwater plains, where it migrates from rivers and lakes into flooded fields, returning to the permanent water bodies in the dry season, where it survives by burrowing in the mud.

Channa orientalis

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Channa orientalis is a dwarf snakehead species. the common name give to 'channa orientalis' is the ceylon snakehead. They are freshwater fish that grow to a maximum size of 10 cm/4 inches. They originate southwest of the island of Sri Lanka. They are predatory fish that feed on plankton, insects and sometimes small amphibians. They can breathe on land for short periods of time depending on the weather. During wet weather they can survive on land for more than 4 days however if their bodies were to dry-up they would die. They are hardy fish that can survive environmental changes and have a good tolerance to high acidity in water.Channa orientalis (Ceylon Snakehead) is according to existing reports a mouth brooder. The male carries the eggs while the female guard the territory. The male is less active during this period and is often seen close to the surface. The fry remain with the male until the can take care of them self. Females may catch stray fry and return them to the mouth of the male. The fry is ejected via the gill openings.

Castor oil plant

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The castor oil plant, Ricinus communis, is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. It belongs to a monotypic genus, Ricinus, and subtribe, Ricininae. The evolution of castor and its relation to other species is currently being studied. Its seed is the castor bean which, despite its name, is not a true bean.

Castor seed is the source of castor oil, which has a wide variety of uses. The seeds contain between 40% and 60% oil that is rich in triglycerides, mainly ricinolein. The seed coat contains ricin, a toxin, which is also present in lower concentrations throughout the plant.

The toxicity of raw castor beans is well-known. Although as few as one bean can kill any human and four could kill a horse, reports of actual poisoning are relatively rare.

Castor seeds have been found in Egyptian tombs dating back to 4000 BC being used mostly to fuel lamps because of the slow burning oil. Herodotus and other Greek travelers have noted the use of castor seed oil for lighting, body ointments, and improving hair growth and texture. Cleopatra is reputed to have used it to brighten the whites of her eyes. The Ebers Papyrus is an ancient Egyptian medical treatise believed to date from 1552 BC. Translated in 1872, it describes castor oil as a laxative.

Global castor seed production is around 1 million tons per year. Leading producing areas are India (with over 60% of the global yield), China and Brazil. There are several active breeding programmes.

Another plant species, Fatsia japonica, looks similar to the castor oil plant and is known as the false castor oil plant.

Description

The glossy leaves are 15–45 centimetres (5.9–18 in) long, long-stalked, alternate and palmate with 5–12 deep lobes with coarsely toothed segments. Their colour varies from dark green, sometimes with a reddish tinge, to dark reddish purple or bronze.

The stems and the spherical, spiny seed pods also vary in pigmentation. The pods are more showy than the flowers (the male flowers are yellowish-green with prominent creamy stamens and are carried in ovoid spikes up to 15 centimetres (5.9 in) long; the female flowers, borne at the tips of the spikes, have prominent red stigmas).

Terminating stems are panicle-like inflorescences of green monoecious flowers, the stalked female flowers above the male flowers below, both without petals.

The fruit is a spiny, greenish capsule with large, oval, shiny, bean-like, highly poisonous seeds with variable brownish motling.

Nomenclature

The name Ricinus is a Latin word for tick; the seed is so named because it has markings and a bump at the end which resemble certain ticks. The common name "castor oil" likely comes from its use as a replacement for castoreum, a perfume base made from the dried perineal glands of the beaver (castor in Latin). It has another common name, Palm of Christ, or Palma Christi, that derives from castor oil's ability to heal wounds and cure ailments.

Habitat and growth

Although castor is indigenous to the southeastern Mediterranean Basin, Eastern Africa, and India, today it is widespread throughout tropical regions. Castor establishes itself easily as an apparently "native" plant and can often be found on wasteland. It is widely grown as a crop in Ethiopia. It is also used extensively as a decorative plant in parks and other public areas, particularly as a "dot plant" in traditional bedding schemes. It was used in Edwardian times in the parks of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Of the red and white variety, the red is seen as an ornamental plant, the white is used medicinally.
Castor oil seed output in 2006

Although monotypic, the castor oil plant can vary greatly in its growth habit and appearance.

It is a fast-growing, suckering perennial shrub which can reach the size of a small tree (around 12 metres/39 feet), but it is not hardy. However it grows well outside, at least in Southern England, and the leaves do not appear to suffer frost damage in sheltered spots, where it remains evergreen. In areas prone to frost it is usually shorter and grown as if it were an annual. If sown early, under glass, and kept at a temperature of around 20 °C (68 °F) until planted out, the castor oil plant can reach a height of 2–3 metres (6.6–9.8 ft) in a year.

Selections have been made by breeders for use as ornamental plants: 'Gibsonii' has red-tinged leaves with reddish veins and pinkish-green seed pods; 'Carmencita Pink' is similar, with pinkish-red stems; 'Carmencita Bright Red' has red stems, dark purplish leaves and red seed pods; all grow to around 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) tall as annuals. 'Impala' is compact (only 1.2 metres/3.9 feet tall) with reddish foliage and stems, brightest on the young shoots; 'Red Spire' is tall (2–3 metres/6.6–9.8 feet) with red stems and bronze foliage; 'Zanzibarensis' is also tall (2–3 metres/6.6–9.8 feet), with large, mid-green leaves (50 centimetres/20 inches long) that have white midribs. (Heights refer to plants grown as annuals.)

Plant-animal interactions

Ricinus communis is the host plant of the Common Castor butterfly (Ariadne merione) and the Castor Semi-Looper moth (Achaea janata). It is also used as a food plant by the larvae of some other species of Lepidoptera, including Hypercompe hambletoni and the Nutmeg (Discestra trifolii).

Among birds, it is a favourite food of the Tambourine Dove (Turtur tympanistria).

Castor beans are very toxic.

Uses

Usage in ethnobotany The use of castor seed oil in India has been documented since 2000 BC for use in lamps and in local medicine as a laxative, purgative, and cathartic in Unani, Ayurvedic and other ethnomedical systems. Traditional Ayurvedic medicine considers castor oil the king of medicinals for curing arthritic diseases.

Castor seed and its oil have also been used in China for centuries, mainly prescribed in local medicine for internal use or use in dressings.

Castor oil is also the source for undecylenic acid, a natural fungicide.

The oil is known to have been used as an instrument of coercion by the paramilitary Blackshirts under the regime of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. Dissidents and regime opponents were forced to ingest the oil in large amounts, triggering severe diarrhoea and dehydration, which could ultimately cause death. This punishment method was originally thought of by Gabriele D'Annunzio, the Italian poet and Fascist supporter, during the First World War.

It was used in rituals of sacrifice to please the gods in early civilizations.

In Brazil, castor plants are abundant. The "fruits" are used by children as slingshot balls. Mamonas, as the fruits are called, serve perfectly as projectiles for slingshots since they have the right weight, size and hardness. Mamona oil is now being used to produce biodiesel in poor rural areas of the country.

Cane toad

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The cane toad (Bufo marinus), also known as the Giant Neotropical Toad or Marine Toad, is a large, terrestrial true toad native to Central and South America. It is a member of the subgenus Chaunus of the genus Bufo, which includes many different true toad species throughout Central and South America. The cane toad is a prolific breeder; females lay single-clump spawns with large numbers of eggs. Its reproductive success is partly because of opportunistic feeding: it has a diet, unusual among Anurans, of both dead and living matter. Adults average 10 to 15 centimetres (4–6 in) in length; the largest recorded specimen weighed 2.65 kg (5.8 lb) with a length of 38 cm (15 in) from snout to vent.

The cane toad has poison glands, and the tadpoles are highly toxic to most animals if ingested. Because of its voracious appetite, the cane toad has been introduced to many regions of the Pacific and the Caribbean islands as a method of agricultural pest control, notably failing in the case of Australia in 1935, and derives its common name from its use against the greyback cane beetle pests. The cane toad is now considered a pest and invasive species in many of its introduced regions, because its toxic skin kills many native predators when ingested. It has many negative effects on farmers because of pets and animals eating the creatures.

Taxonomy

The common name of "cane toad" is derived from the original purpose of using it to eradicate pests in sugar cane crops. The cane toad has many other common names, including "Giant Toad" and "Marine Toad"; the former refers to their size, and the latter to the binomial name, Bufo marinus. It was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae. Linnaeus based the specific epithet, marinus, on an illustration by Albertus Seba, who mistakenly believed the cane toad to inhabit both terrestrial and marine environments. Other common names include "Giant Neotropical Toad," "Dominican Toad," "Giant Marine Toad," and "South American Cane Toad." In Trinidadian English they are commonly called "Crapaud" (the French name for "toad").

In Australia, the adults may be confused with species of the Limnodynastes, Neobatrachus, Mixophyes, and Notaden genera. These species can be readily distinguished from the cane toad by the lack of large parotoid glands behind their eyes. Cane toads have been confused with the Giant Burrowing Frog (Heleioporus australiacus), because both are large and warty in appearance; however, the Giant Burrowing Frog can be readily distinguished from the cane toad by its vertical pupils. Juvenile cane toads may be confused with species of the Uperoleia genus, because they all have large parotoid glands; juvenile cane toads can be distinguished from these species by the ridging around their eyes and the lack of bright colouring on their thighs.
Lightly coloured cane toad

In the United States, the cane toad closely resembles many Bufonid species. In particular, it could be confused with the Southern toad (Bufo terrestris) and Fowler's Toad (Bufo fowleri). The Southern Toad can be distinguished by the presence of two bulbs in front of the parotoid glands, and the Fowler's Toad has a pale, cream-white stripe that runs down the dorsal surface; the cane toad lacks this stripe.

It is possible to confuse the cane toad with the Rococo Toad (Bufo schneideri), sometimes referred to as Schneider's Toad, whose range overlaps that of the cane toad. The Rococo Toad grows to nearly the same size but has additional poison glands on its back legs which can be used to reliably identify it. Within its native range, the cane toad can be distinguished from the other true toads by the shape of its parotoid glands and the arrangement of the ridges on its head.

Description

The cane toad is very large; the females are larger than males, reaching an average length of 10–15 centimetres (4–6 in), and much longer in some cases. "Prinsen", a toad kept as a pet in Sweden, is listed by the Guinness Book of Records as the largest recorded specimen. It reportedly weighed 2.65 kilograms (5.84 lb) and measured 38 centimetres (15 in) from snout to vent, or 54 centimetres (21 in) when fully extended. (3 lb). They have a life expectancy of 10 to 15 years in the wild and as long as 20 years in captivity.

The skin of the cane toad is dry and warty. It has distinct ridges above the eyes which run down the snout. Cane toads can be grey, brown, red-brown or olive in colour, with varying patterns. A large parotoid gland lies behind each eye. The ventral surface is cream and may have blotches in shades of black or brown. The pupils are horizontal and the irises golden. The toes have a fleshy webbing at their base, and the fingers are free of webbing.

Juvenile cane toads are much smaller than adult cane toads—only 5 to 10 centimetres (2–4 in) long. Typically, they have smooth, dark skin, although some specimens have a red wash. Juveniles lack the adults' large parotoid glands, so they are usually less poisonous. Because they lack this key defence, it is estimated that only 0.5% of metamorph Cane toads reach adulthood. The tadpoles are small and uniformly black. They are bottom-dwellers and congregate around plants forming schools. Tadpoles reach 27 millimetres (1 in) in length but are smaller—up to 22 millimetres (0.9 in)—under overcrowded conditions.

Barbados gooseberry

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Pereskia aculeata (Barbados gooseberry) is a species of Pereskia, a genus of unusual cacti with spiny non-succulent stems and large leaves. It is native to tropical America.

It is a scrambling vine growing to 10 m tall in trees, with stems 2-3 cm thick. The leaves are 4-11 cm long and 1.5-4 cm broad, simple, entire, and deciduous in the dry season. The flowers are white, 2.5-5 cm diameter, and numerous, produced in panicles. The fruit is a yellow to orange berry 2 cm in diameter, edible, containing numerous small seeds. It somewhat resembles the gooseberry in appearance, is generally yellow in color and of excellent flavor.

Myriophyllum aquaticum

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Habitat

Parrot feather is native to the Amazon River in South America - however, it can be found worldwide now. It is thought that this plant was introduced to North America around the 1800s. As it prefers a warmer climate, it is chiefly found in the southern parts of the United States. Parrot feather is a fresh-water plant; it can be found in lakes, ponds, and streams.

Flowering

Parrot feather is a perennial plant. As the water warms in the spring, parrot feather begins to flourish. Most plants flower in the spring; however, some also flower in the fall. Flowers of this plant are very small and white in color. Almost all plants of this species are female, in fact there are no male plants found outside of South America. Seeds are not produced in any North American plants. Parrot feather reproduces asexually. New plants grow from fragments of already rooted plants.

Use and abuse

Parrot feather is now used for indoor and outdoor aquatic use. It is a very popular plant in aquatic gardens. Unfortunately, in outdoor ponds, lakes, or streams, where this plant has taken root some problems can occur due to its presence. There is no real predator to the parrot feather plant, so it tends to grow out of control in some areas.[citation needed] The plant tends to be a little hard or tough for most water grazers to eat. In its native habitat, some insects feed on this plant, but in its introduced habitats only a handful of predators have been found, and research does not show any considerable damage. In the United States (Florida), flea beetles have been found to use parrot feather as a host for their larvae.

Some problems created by parrot feather due to its overgrowth are the killing off of algae, and mosquito larvae habitat; problems in irrigation and drainage, and restriction of water recreational activities. Herbicides have not been found very useful in controlling its growth, and cutting it only tends to make it spread and grow more. In the U.S. states of Alabama, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, Vermont, and Washington, parrot feather is a declared noxious weed and is therefore banned from sale.

Melia azedarach

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Commonly called Persian Lilac, White Cedar, Chinaberry or Bead Tree, Melia azedarach(syn. M. australis, M. japonica, M. sempervivens), is a deciduous tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae, native to India, southern China and Australia. In South Africa it is commonly but erroneously called Syringa, which is in fact the lilac genus. The genus Melia includes four other species, occurring from southeast Asia to northern Australia. They are all deciduous or semi-evergreen trees.
Indian Grey Hornbill Ocyceros birostris eating its fruit at Roorkee in Haridwar District of Uttarakhand, India.

The adult tree has a rounded crown, and measures between 7 and 12 metres in height. The flowers are small and fragrant, with five pale purple or lilac petals, growing in clusters. The fruit is a drupe, marble-sized, light yellow at maturity, hanging on the tree all winter, and gradually becoming wrinkled and almost white. In Australian rainforests, Melia azedarach can attain a height of 45 metres.
leaves & green fruit in Kolkata, West Bengal, India.

The leaves are up to 50 cm long, alternate, long-petioled, 2 or 3 times compound (odd-pinnate); the leaflets are dark green above and lighter green below, with serrate margins. They have been used as a natural insecticide to keep with stored food, but must not be eaten as they are highly poisonous. A diluted infusion of leaves and trees has been used in the past to induce uterus relaxation.

Uses and ecology

The main utility of chinaberry is its timber. This is of medium density, and ranges in colour from light brown to dark red. In appearance it is readily confused with the unrelated Tectona grandis (Burmese Teak). Melia azedarach in keeping with other members of the family Meliaceae has a timber of high quality, but as opposed to many almost-extinct species of mahoganys it is under-utilised. Seasoning is relatively simple in that planks dry without cracking or warping and are resistant to fungal infection. Also known as Ghoda neem (Ghoda meaning horse) in Bengali and Vilayati (foreign) neem in Bundelkhand region, Dharek in Punjab region and Bakain in East Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand region of India. The taste of the leaves are not so bitter as Neem (Azaderachta indica).

The hard, 5-grooved seeds were widely used for making rosaries and other products requiring beads, before their replacement by modern plastics.

The flowers are unattractive to bees and butterflies. Though some hummingbirds like Sapphire-spangled Emerald (Amazilia lactea), Glittering-bellied Emerald (Chlorostilbon lucidus) and Planalto Hermit (Phaethornis pretrei) have been recorded to feed on and pollinate the flowers, these too only take it opportunistically.

Toxicity

Fruits are poisonous to humans if eaten in quantity. However, like the Yew tree, these toxins are not harmful to birds, who gorge themselves on the fruit, eventually reaching a "drunken" state. The toxins are neurotoxins and unidentified resins, found mainly in the fruits. Some birds are able to eat the fruit, spreading the seeds in their droppings. The first symptoms of poisoning appear a few hours after ingestion. They may include loss of appetite, vomiting, constipation or diarrhea, bloody faeces, stomach pain, pulmonary congestion, cardiac arrest, rigidity, lack of coordination and general weakness. Death may take place after about 24 hours. Like in relatives, tetranortriterpenoids consititute an important toxic principle. These are chemically related to Azadirachtin, the primary insecticidal compound in the commercially important Neem oil. These compounds are probably related to the wood and seed's resistance to pest infestation, and maybe to the unattractiveness of the flowers to animals.

As invasive species

The plant was introduced around 1830 as an ornamental in the United States (South Carolina and Georgia) and widely planted in southern states. Today it is considered an invasive species by some groups as far north as Virginia and Oklahoma. But nurseries continue to sell the trees, and seeds are also widely available. It has become naturalized to tropical and warm temperate regions of the Americas and is planted in similar climates around the world. Besides the problem of toxicity, its usefulness as a shade tree in urban areas is diminished by its tendency to sprout where unwanted and to turn sidewalks into dangerously slippery surfaces when the fruits fall, though this is not a problem where songbird populations are in good shape. As noted above, the possibility of commercially profitable over-exploitation of feral stands remains largely unexplored.

Lantana camara

2009-04-03T23:20:00.001-07:00

Lantana camara, also known as Spanish Flag, is native to tropical regions in Central and South America. Lantana camara has been introduced into other parts of the world as an ornamental plant, it is considered an invasive species in many tropical areas.

It is sometimes known as "red (yellow, wild) sage", despite its classification in a separate family to sage (Lamiaceae), and a different order to sagebrush (Asterales).

Naturalization

Lantana camara has become naturalized in tropical and warm regions worldwide. In the Kenyan highlands it grows in many areas that receive even minimal amounts of rainfall. It can be seen in the wild and along footpaths, deserted fields, and farms. Lantana has been naturalized in the United States, particularly in the Atlantic coastal plains, from Florida to Georgia, where the climate is close to its native climate, with high heat and humidity.

Domestication

Lantana has become popular in gardens, for its hardy nature. It is not affected by pests or disease, has low water requirements, and handles extreme heat. It is a favorite species of butterflies, and used in butterfly gardens in the United States.

Ecological impact

Lantana camara is an invasive species and has covered large areas in India', Australia' and much of Africa. It colonizes new areas when its seeds are dispersed by birds. Once it reaches an area, Lantana camara spreads quickly. It coppices so well, that efforts to eradicate it have completely failed. It is resistant to fire, and quickly grows in and colonizes burnt areas. It has become a serious obstacle to the natural regeneration of important native species including Sal in Southeast Asia, as well as plants in 22 other countries. In greenhouses, lantana is notorious for attracting whitefly.

While considered a pest in Australia, it shelters several native marsupial species from predators, and offers a habitat for the vulnerable Exoneura native bee, which nests in the hollow stems of the plant.

Lantana camara has been reported to make animals ill after ingestion. The berries are edible when ripe though like many fruit are mildly poisonous to humans and livestock if eaten while still green. Lantana has been listed as a Category One "Invasive Toxic Species" in Florida by the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, and has become a problem in Texas and Hawaii.

Lago Agrio oil field

2009-04-03T23:19:00.001-07:00

The Lago Agrio oil field is an oil-rich area in the Ecuadorian province of Sucumbíos, discovered in the 1960s. The Lago Agrio field is known internationally for the serious ecological problems that oil development has created there, including water pollution, soil contamination, deforestation and cultural upheaval. Since 1993, lawyers representing local residents have sought to force former well operator Texaco and its parent company Chevron Corporation to clean the area and to provide for the care of those allegedly affected.

Development

In 1964, Texaco Petroleum Company (TexPet) began exploring for oil in northeast Ecuador. The following year it started operating a consortium owned equally by itself and Gulf Oil, to develop a tract around present-day Nueva Loja. The consortium struck a gusher in 1967 and began full-scale production in 1972. The government, through its national oil company CEPE, now Petroecuador, obtained a 25 percent interest in the consortium in 1974.

Over a period of 20 years, the Lago Agrio field produced 1.7 billion barrels of oil with a profit of $25 billion. According to Chevron, 95 percent of the profit from the consortium went to the government. Gulf sold its interest to CEPE in 1977, and TexPet transferred management of the consortium to Petroecuador in 1990. TexPet's concession in expired in 1993, leaving Petroecuador as the sole owner.

Impact

Pollution

TexPet directed produced water from its wells into open pits, as was a common industry practice at the time. According to environmental activists, the produced water was heavy in cancer-causing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and is responsible for present-day contamination of the regional water supply. They allege that there has been a 150% increase in cancer cases in the community and region. Chevron and its supporters maintain that no causal link between the produced water and cancer has been shown.

Remediation efforts

In 1995, amid litigation, Texaco agreed to clean a number of waste pits in proportion to its interest in the consortium, at a cost of $40 million. In exchange, the government released Texaco from further liability. Chevron has used this agreement as its primary defense against the ongoing legal claims.

Litigation

Lawyers for the indigenous residents of the Lago Agrio field sued Texaco in 1993. The lawsuit accused TexPet of discharging produced water into the same water that was used by the locals for fishing, bathing, and drinking. This case was dismissed for improper venue, and litigation has continued in Ecuador. In 2008, a court-appointed expert issued report accusing Texaco employees of not only widespread pollution, but deforestation and cultural destruction as well. The report estimated the damages by TexPet between $8 billion and $16 billion dollars, which the expert later increased by $11 billion.

One plaintiffs' lawyer, Cristobal Bonifaz, was dismissed from the litigation in 2006 . He went on to file a case against Chevron in 2007 on behalf of new clients who claimed that pollution had given them cancer. The court found that three of the plaintiffs did not have cancer. After dismissing their claims (leaving two claims active), the court imposed a $45,000 fine against Bonifaz for making frivolous claims.

Chevron claims that the company is being unfairly targeted as a deep pocket. It maintains that responsibility for damage and cleanup now lies with Petroecuador and the government, and contends that much of the present damage comes from Petroecuador's activities since 1990, including spills from a pipeline system built by the consortium that Petroecuador has not maintained.

Attorney Pablo Fajardo, who represents the plaintiffs, and activist Luis Yanza received the Goldman Environmental Prize for their work in this case. The prize is considered the most prestigious award for environmental protection in the world.

Arctic Refuge drilling controversy

2009-04-03T23:18:00.000-07:00

The question of whether to drill for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) has been an ongoing political controversy in the United States since 1977. The issue has been used by both Democrats and Republicans as a political device, especially through contentious election cycles, and has been the subject of much debate in the National media.

ANWR comprises 19,000,000 acres (77,000 km2) of the north Alaskan coast. The land is situated between the Beaufort Sea to the north, Brooks Range to the south, and Prudhoe Bay to the west. It is the largest protected wilderness in the United States and was created by Congress under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980. Section 1002 of that act deferred a decision on the management of oil and gas exploration and development of 1,500,000 acres (6,100 km2) in the coastal plain, known as the "1002 area." The controversy surrounds drilling for oil in this subsection of ANWR.

Much of the debate over whether to drill in the 1002 area of ANWR rests on the amount of economically recoverable oil, as it relates to world oil markets, weighed against the potential harm oil exploration might have upon the natural wildlife, in particular the calving ground of the Porcupine caribou.

History

Before Alaska was granted statehood on January 3, 1959, virtually all 375,000,000 acres (1,520,000 km2) of the Territory of Alaska was federal land and wilderness. The act granting statehood gave Alaska the right to select 103,000,000 acres (420,000 km2) for use as an economic and tax base. In 1966, Alaska Natives protested a Federal oil and gas lease sale of lands on the North Slope which were claimed by Natives. Late that year Secretary Udall ordered the lease sale suspended, and shortly thereafter announced a 'freeze' on the disposition of all Federal land in Alaska, pending Congressional settlement of Native land claims. These claims were settled in 1971 by the Alaska Native claims settlement act, which granted them 44,000,000 acres (180,000 km2). The act also froze development on federal lands pending a final selection of parks, monuments, and refuges. The law was set to expire in 1978.

Toward the end of 1976, with the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System virtually complete, major conservation groups shifted their attention to how best to protect the hundreds of millions of acres of Alaskan wilderness unaffected by the pipeline. On May 16, 1979, the United States House of Representatives approved a conservationist-backed bill that would have protected more than 125,000,000 acres (510,000 km2) of Federal lands in Alaska, including the calving ground of the nation's largest caribou herd. Backed by President Jimmy Carter, and sponsored by Morris K. Udall and John B. Anderson, the bill would have prohibited all commercial activity in 67,000,000 acres (270,000 km2) designated as wilderness areas. The US senate had opposed similar legislation in the past and filibusters were threatened.On December 2, 1980, Carter signed into law the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, which created more than 104,000,000 acres (420,000 km2) of national parks, wildlife refuges and wilderness areas from Federal holdings in that state. The bill allowed drilling in ANWR, but not without prior approval from Congress. Both sides of the controversy announced they would attempt to change it in the next session of Congress.

Section 1002 of the act stated that a comprehensive inventory of fish and wildlife resources would be conducted on 1,500,000 acres (6,100 km2) of the Arctic Refuge coastal plain (1002 Area). Potential petroleum reserves in the 1002 Area were to be evaluated from surface geological studies and seismic exploration surveys. No exploratory drilling was allowed. Results of these studies and recommendations for future management of the Arctic Refuge coastal plain were to be prepared in a report to Congress.

In November 1986, a draft report by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service recommended that all of the coastal plain within the Artic National Wildlife Refuge be opened for oil and gas development. It also proposed to trade the mineral rights of 166,000 acres (670 km2) in the refuge for surface rights to 896,000 acres (3,630 km2) owned by corporations of six Alaska native groups, including Aleuts, Eskimos and Tlingits. The report argued that the oil and gas potentials of the coastal plain were needed for the country's economy and national security. Conservationists argued that oil development would unnecessarily threaten the existence of the Porcupine caribou by cutting off the herd from calving areas. They also expressed concerns that oil operations would erode the fragile ecological systems that support wildlife on the tundra of the Arctic plain. The proposal faced stiff opposition in the House of Representatives. Morris Udall, chairman of the House Interior Committee, said he would reintroduce legislation to turn the entire coastal plain into a wilderness area, effectively giving the refuge permanent protection from development.
Typical view of the ANWR 1002 area coastal plain

On July 17, 1987 the United States and the Canadian government signed the "Agreement on the Conservation of the Porcupine Caribou Herd" a treaty which was designed to protect the species from damage to its habitat and migration routes. Canada has special interest in the region because its Ivvavik National Park and Vuntut National Park borders the refuge. The treaty required an impact assessment and required that where activity in one country is "likely to cause significant long-term adverse impact on the Porcupine Caribou Herd or its habitat, the other Party will be notified and given an opportunity to consult prior to final decision."

In March 1989 a bill permitting drilling in the reserve was "sailing through the Senate and had been expected to come up for a vote" when the Exxon Valdez oil spill delayed and ultimately derailed the process.

In 1996 the Republican-majority House and Senate voted to allow drilling in ANWR, but this legislation was vetoed by President Bill Clinton. Toward the end of his presidential term environmentalists pressed Clinton to declare the Arctic Refuge a U.S. National Monument. Doing so would have permanently closed the area to oil exploration. While Clinton did create several refuge monuments, the Arctic Refuge was not among them.
Photograph of oil-stained sandstone near crest of Marsh Creek anticline, 1002 area

A 1998 report by the U.S. Geological Survey estimated that there was between 5.7 billion barrels (910,000,000 m3) and 16.0 billion barrels (2.54×109 m3) of technically recoverable oil in the designated 1002 area, and that most of the oil would be found west of the Marsh Creek anticline. When Non-Federal and Native areas are excluded, the estimated amounts of technically recoverable oil are reduced to 4.3 billion barrels (680,000,000 m3) and 11.8 billion barrels (1.88×109 m3). These figures differed from an earlier 1987 USGS report which estimated less quantities of oil and that it would be found in the southern and eastern parts of the 1002 area. However the 1998 report warned that the "estimates cannot be compared directly because different methods were used in preparing those parts of the 1987 Report to Congress."

In the 2000s, votes about the status of the refuge occurred repeatedly in the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate. President George W. Bush pushed to perform exploratory drilling for crude oil and natural gas in and around the refuge. The House of Representatives voted in mid-2000 to allow drilling. In April 2002 the Senate rejected it.

Arctic Refuge drilling was again approved by the Republican-controlled House of Representatives as part of the Energy Bill on April 21, 2005, but the Arctic Refuge provision was later removed by the House-Senate conference committee. The Republican-controlled Senate passed Arctic Refuge drilling on March 16, 2005 as part of the federal budget resolution for fiscal year 2006.[20] That Arctic Refuge provision was removed during the reconciliation process, due to Democrats in the House of Representatives who signed a letter stating they would oppose any version of the budget that had Arctic Refuge drilling in it.

On December 15, 2005 Senator Ted Stevens, a Republican from Alaska, attached an Arctic Refuge drilling amendment to the annual defense appropriations bill. A group of Democratic Senators led a successful filibuster of the bill on December 21, and the language was subsequently removed.

On June 18, 2008 President George W. Bush pressed Congress to reverse the ban on offshore drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in addition to approving the extraction of oil from shale on federal lands. Despite his previous stance on the issue, President Bush cited the growing energy crisis as a major factor for reversing the presidential executive order issued by President George H. W. Bush in 1990, which banned coastal oil exploration and oil and gas leasing on most of the outer continental shelf. In conjunction with the presidential order, the Congressional moratorium banning drilling was first enacted in 1982 and has been renewed annually.

Acacia

2009-04-03T23:16:00.000-07:00

Acacia is a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, first described in Africa by the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus in 1773. The plants tend to be thorny and pod-bearing. The name derives from ακις (akis) which is Greek for a sharp point, due to the thorns in the type-species Acacia nilotica ("Nile Acacia") from Egypt.

Acacias are also known as thorntrees or wattles, including the yellow-fever acacia and umbrella acacias.

There are roughly 1300 species of Acacia worldwide, about 960 of them native to Australia, with the remainder spread around the tropical to warm-temperate regions of both hemispheres, including Africa, southern Asia, and the Americas.

Classification

The genus Acacia is apparently not monophyletic. This discovery has led to the breaking up of Acacia into five new genera as discussed in list of Acacia species.In common parlance the term "acacia" is occasionally misapplied to species of the genus Robinia, which also belongs in the pea family. Robinia pseudoacacia, an American species locally known as Black locust, is sometimes called "false acacia" in cultivation in the United Kingdom.

Geography

The southernmost species in the genus are Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle), Acacia longifolia (Coast Wattle or Sydney Golden Wattle), Acacia mearnsii (Black Wattle), and Acacia melanoxylon (Blackwood), reaching 43°30' S in Tasmania, Australia, while Acacia caven (Espinillo Negro) reaches nearly as far south in northeastern Chubut Province of Argentina. Australian species are usually called wattles, while African and American species tend to be known as acacias.
Acacia retinodes

Acacia albida, Acacia tortilis and Acacia iraqensis can be found growing wild in the Sinai desert and the Jordan valley. It is found in the savanna vegetation of the tropical continental climate.

Description

The leaves of acacias are compound pinnate in general. In some species, however, more especially in the Australian and Pacific islands species, the leaflets are suppressed, and the leaf-stalks (petioles) become vertically flattened, and serve the purpose of leaves. These are known as phyllodes. The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight, as with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as horizontally placed leaves. A few species (such as Acacia glaucoptera) lack leaves or phyllodes altogether, but possess instead cladodes, modified leaf-like photosynthetic stems functioning as leaves.

The small flowers have five very small petals, almost hidden by the long stamens, and are arranged in dense globular or cylindrical clusters; they are yellow or cream-colored in most species, whitish in some, even purple (Acacia purpureapetala) or red (Acacia leprosa Scarlet Blaze). Acacia flowers can be distinguished from those of a large related genus, Albizia, by their stamens which are not joined at the base. Also, unlike individual Mimosa flowers, those of Acacia have more than 10 stamens.

The plants often bear spines, especially those species growing in arid regions. These sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. Acacia armata is the Kangaroo-thorn of Australia and Acacia erioloba is the Camelthorn of Africa.

Center for International Environmental Law

2009-04-01T22:31:00.001-07:00

The Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL) is a public interest, not-for-profit environmental law firm founded in 1989 in the USA to strengthen international and comparative environmental law and policy around the world.

Daniel B. Magraw is the current president.

Program areas

* Climate Change
* Biodiversity and Wildlife
* Biotechnology
* Trade and Sustainable Development
* International financial institutions
* Law and Communities
* Persistent Organic Pollutants
* Human Rights and the Environment

BirdLife International

2009-04-01T22:30:00.002-07:00

BirdLife International (formerly known as the International Council for Bird Preservation) is the international conservation organization working to protect the world’s birds and their habitats. It is a global conservation federation with a worldwide network of over 100 different Partner organizations, including the RSPB, the Gibraltar Ornithological & Natural History Society (GONHS), National Audubon Society, Bombay Natural History Society, Birds Australia, Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand, Nature Seychelles, Malaysian Nature Society and BirdWatch Ireland.

BirdLife International was founded in 1922 by American ornithologists T. Gilbert Pearson and Jean Theodore Delacour as the International Council for Bird Preservation. This lobbying group fell into disuse after World War II. It became active again in 1983 with the appointment of a professional director, and changed its name in 1993 to Birdlife International.

BirdLife International is the official Red List Authority for birds for the IUCN.

The current president is Princess Takamado of Japan. Past presidents include Queen Noor of Jordan.

Biosphere Expeditions

2009-04-01T22:30:00.001-07:00

Biosphere Expeditions is a wildlife research and conservation non-profit organization whose main focus is to conserve the biosphere with volunteer-led scientific conservation expeditions to several countries around the world. It was founded in 1999.

Biosphere Expeditions states its purpose as the promotion of sustainable conservation of the planet's wildlife by involving the public, with scientists across the globe on real hands-on wildlife research and conservation expeditions. Expeditions typically place interested people with no research experience alongside scientists widely accepted to be at the forefront of their conservation work. Anyone may join an expedition as there are neither special skills or fitness requirements nor age limitations.

Biosphere Expeditions also advocates sustainable tourism.

Biosphere Expeditions is listed as currently working in eight countries around the world; Oman, Honduras, Portugal (or more specifically the Azores), Spain, the Altai Republic, Slovakia, Namibia and Brazil.
Namibia expedition: transferring a sedated cheetah to the field lab for fitting a radio collar.

Biosphere Expeditions receives funding from both contributions made by volunteers joining expeditions and grants from corporate partners. Consequently, the organization’s expeditions have an independence from government and other restrictive grants. Likewise, Biosphere Expeditions makes these projects feasible, whereas funding for such projects would otherwise seem hard to obtain. Each expedition works with one or more local scientists and focuses on wildlife conservation and research, typically involving flagship species such as the snow leopard, cheetah, dolphins, whales, coral reefs, wolf and bear.

Biosphere Expeditions strives to make major contributions to research projects which otherwise would not take place without the organization’s support. The research on cetaceans in the Azores represent two such examples.

• This research was historically carried out annually during the period from late May to September. Since 2004, by reason of Biosphere Expeditions’ support through its volunteers and funding, the researchers expanded the width of the observation window by beginning in early April instead of late May. This extended period resulted in adding significant research data from the hundreds of sightings of rare animals such as baleen whales (blue, fin, sei, humpback and minke whales).

• The researchers typically add photo identification pictures of these animals to an international photo database of photos, known as the Photo ID Catalogue. Matthias Hammer, Biosphere Expeditions’ founder, states, “Animals passing the Azores are possibly going up to Iceland or Scandinavia, so we see these expeditions as vital in helping to both plot migration routes and estimate numbers.” Most project scientists believe it is only a matter of time before they can match animals seen in different years and/or different geographical locations. Expedition members for this project made a significant contribution by augmenting sperm whale research with their testing and validating computer software designed to match individual animals utilizing photographic imaging, similar to a facial recognition system, which compares other body features, such as the flukes, contained in the digital photographs. With several thousand sperm whale photo ID pictures in the North Atlantic catalogue, the success of this program will significantly reduce lab time by eliminating the manual visual comparisons.

History

Biosphere Expeditions was founded in 1999 by Matthias Hammer. The first expedition took place in Poland’s Carpathian Mountains during 2001. The project focused on wolves in the area and was instrumental in establishing a wolf hunting ban there. Soon thereafter, Biosphere Expeditions’ portfolio grew and the organization opened additional offices in Germany, France and the USA.

In 2006, Biosphere Expeditions won the Best Volunteering Organisation award at the First Choice Responsible Tourism Awards held in London, followed by a "Highly Commended" award in the "Best for Protection of Endangered Species" category a year later.

Biofuelwatch

2009-04-01T22:29:00.004-07:00

Biofuelwatch, an environmental organisation based in the United Kingdom, campaigns against the use of bioenergy from unsustainable sources, i.e. biofuels linked to accelerated climate change, deforestation, bio-diversity losses, human rights abuses, including the impoverishment and dispossession of local populations, water and soil degradation, loss of food sovereignty and food security.

Bellona Foundation

2009-04-01T22:29:00.003-07:00

The Bellona Foundation is an international environmental organization established in 1986 and based in Oslo, Norway. The organization was established by Frederic Hauge and Rune Haaland. It primarily functions as a nuclear watchdog focusing on developments in Russia (Bellona has branches in Murmansk and Saint Petersburg). The organization also has offices in Washington, D.C. and Brussels.

In February 1996, Russian FSB arrested Bellona's Russian expert Alexander Nikitin and charged him with treason through espionage for his contributions to a Bellona report on the nuclear safety within the Russian Northern Fleet. He was fully acquitted by the Russian Supreme Court in 2000.

The Bellona Foundation was sponsored between 2005 and 2008 by the Norwegian oil company Statoil with 500,000 NOK (approx.€ 55,000).

The environmental foundation is a supporter of Carbon Capture and Storage

ATWA

2009-04-01T22:29:00.001-07:00

ATWA is an acronym for Air, Trees, Water, Animals and All The Way Alive. It was first termed by Charles Manson in the early 1970s. The name represents the life support system of the Earth. Charles Manson and his associates, most notably Lynette Fromme and Sandra Good, use the term to name the force of life and the opposition to that which destroys the ecological balance of the Earth. Sandra Good was imprisoned for 10 years for conspiracy to send threatening letters to corporate executives unless their corporations ceased polluting the environment.

ATWA is associated with the so-called Manson Family, the music group Family Jams, the Order of Rainbow, the WKFL Fountain of the World and the International People's Court of Retribution.

Antinea Foundation

2009-04-01T22:28:00.001-07:00

The Antinea Foundation is a Switzerland-based non-profit organisation with the mission to play an innovative role in the conservation of the oceans. The Foundation’s projects are articulated around its flagship: the sailing boat "Fleur de Passion" which will circumnavigate the world over the next decade, exploring its most important and threatened marine regions as identified by the WWF’s Global 200 project. This expedition named "Changing Oceans Expedition" is conducted in close co-operation with the IUCN. In 2008 Antinea Foundation and its expedition received patronage of the UNESCO.

To carry out its mission the Foundation is creating a partnership network of leading organisations in the scientific, conservation, eco-tourism and media fields. The organisation acts as a supporting and strengthening element, not only assembling skills and know-how but also contributing its resources to the particular mission of each of its partners and communicating the underlying conservation issues to a wider public.

Objectives

Antinea Foundation's mission to play an innovative role in protecting the oceans is carried out by focussing on three main objectives:

1. Scientific Research: Contributing to a better scientific understanding of the marine environment, in particular by providing scientists access to the organisation's expedition vessel "Fleur de Passion"
2. Communication & Education: Raising public awareness and media attention on marine conservation issues making use of cutting-edge communication tools
3. Participation: Giving members of the Foundation and further individuals the opportunity to become involved in projects as eco-volunteers

Changing Oceans Expedition

On October 8, 2008 at the World Conservation Congress in Barcelona the Antinea Foundation, in partnership with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), launched a 10 years, worldwide expedition called "Changing Oceans Expedition". The purpose of it is to take stock of what the state of the oceans is, how they have changed and what can be done to strengthen their health.

Along its voyage Antinea's flagship Fleur de Passion will visit over 100 sites that are exceptional for the richness of their biodiversity. Included in those will be marine World Heritage Site and other globally significant marine protected areas. Small and large organisations will be given access to use the ship for research purposes. The expedition will follow the routes of past expeditions, and compare modern surveys with ancient logbooks in order to measure the changes that occurred in the past decades. IUCN, through its Marine programme, will collaborate with Antinea to retrace the most significant expeditions, to develop the tools needed to measure and understand the trends in ocean conservation.

In summer 2009 the 33 meter sailing boat will leave Marseille, France for its first research tour through the Mediterranean Sea.

The Flagship "Fleur de Passion"

Fleur de Passion is the Foundation’s flagship and project station. It is a sailing ship with a surprising past. Originally a motor boat of the German Navy, it was built in 1942 for war services, such as de-mining and resupplying submarines. For this reason, the boat has a mixed structure with a wooden hull and steal ribs. In 1945 it was surrendered to the French Navy in compensation for war damages. In 1976 it was disarmed and sold to an individual who transformed it into a ketch and named it Fleur de Passion. For the following 20 years it was used in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic for socio-educational and scientific activities. Fleur de Passion, which had been abandoned for years, was bought in 2002 by the Association Pacifique and put it in a dry dock in January 2003 to start its total restoration. After more than 5 years and 60’000 hour of work it is now ready to set sails.

History

The history of the Antinea Foundation dates began in early 2000 with the creation of the Association Pacifique and the inauguration of the Association Antinea in 2005. Both organisation were based in Geneva, Switzerland.

In 2001, the Association Pacifique bought "Fleur de Passion", an almost 60 year-old abandoned 32 meter sailing boat. This boat was used by its previous owner in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic in the framework of socio-educational, navigation, diving and scientific projects. Since 2001, the Association Pacifique worked assiduously to completely restore "Fleur de Passion", preparing it to sail once again soon.

Meanwhile, the Association Antinea had as its objective to organise a global circumnavigation on board of a yacht which would serve as a platform for research and communication, in a quest to contribute to the protection of the marine environment. The sailing ship Antinea, a 17 meter sloop accomplished the first leg of the expedition, crossing the Atlantic from the Caribbean to Europe in 2005. The project quickly outgrew its humble beginnings with the realisation that the boat had become too small to fulfill Antinea’s new ambitions.

Realising that the objectives of the two organisations were complementary, the Associations Pacifique and Antinea decided, at the beginning of 2006, to unite their assets, resources and energy and create the Antinea Foundation effectively carrying out their projects together.

In June 2007 the Antinea Foundation was officially established as a foundation under Swiss law.

American Indoor Air Quality Council ,CIEC,CIE,CMC,CMI,CMRS,CMR,CIAQM,CMCA,CRMI

2009-04-01T22:26:00.000-07:00

The American Indoor Air Quality Council is a not-for-profit environmental organization founded in 1993. It provides professional certification programs for the indoor air quality industry (IAQ). The Council administers certifications for indoor environmental investigators and consultants, microbial remediation professionals, IAQ administrators and residential mold inspectors. IAQ Council certificants number more than 5,000 in the United States, Canada and overseas.

The IAQ Council is independent of product manufacturers, certification training providers and all other for-profit enterprises. Its certifications are board-awarded by a nationwide panel of industry professionals serving as volunteers.

In 2006, the IAQ Council became the first certification body dedicated to indoor air quality to achieve third party accreditation for a certification program.

History

Indoor air quality as a separate discipline emerged in the United States in the late 1980’s. By the mid 1990’s there were thousands of consultants, investigators and remediators across the country addressing indoor environmental problems from sick building syndrome to mold contamination.

A variety of organizations appeared on the scene to serve this new profession, offering membership services such as training, certification and continuing education. In the absence of government regulation of the indoor air quality industry, the certification programs offered by these organizations proliferated throughout the 1990’s. In general, they followed a pattern: an IAQ professional seeking certification would join the organization as a member, take a training course from the same organization, and pass a certification exam, also administered by the organization (which would collect fees at every stage of this process).

Leaders at the American IAQ Council grew concerned in the mid 2000’s about the quality and integrity of certifications administered this way. They concluded that such certifications provide little value to the public:

1. Because they do not require validated field experience of the candidate, they often fail to provide the customer with assurance of a certificant’s abilities and expertise.

2. Because they are not based upon verifiable documentation, they often fail to protect the certificant from legal challenges to his or her professional reputation.

3. Because they are not recognized by independent accreditation bodies, they often fail to demand respect in the marketplace.

The sheer number of competing certifications available with little to differentiate them, coupled with the widespread perception that they were much too easy to acquire, led Council executives to search for ways to raise standards in IAQ certification.

Unification and Accreditation

In early 2006, the IAQ Council formed an alliance with the Indoor Air Quality Association (IAQA) and the Indoor Environmental Standards Organization (IESO) for the purpose of raising standards in IAQ certification. Under the terms of this alliance (or “unification,” as it was called), each organization narrowed the scope of its activities to a single group of services, and transferred its other operations to its unification partners. The IAQ Council, for its part, gave up membership and training operations entirely and became an independent certifying body.

The IAQ Council's policies reflect its commitment to high standards for certification. Each candidate must pass a psychometrically rated examination which is delivered independently of any training course. Each candidate is required to submit verifiable documentation of field experience before his or her application is reviewed by the certification board. The board grants certification by unanimous vote only.

These policies bore fruit in 2006, when the IAQ Council became the first organization dedicated to indoor air quality to achieve third party accreditation of a certification program. The Council for Engineering and Scientific Specialty Boards (CESB), a nationally recognized accreditation body, approved the IAQ Council’s highest designations as engineering-related certification programs.

Certifications

The IAQ Council offers certifications in five disciplines related to indoor air quality:

Indoor Environmental Consulting and Investigation

* Council-certified Indoor Environmental Consultant (CIEC)
* Council-certified Indoor Environmentalist (CIE)

Microbial Consulting and Investigation

* Council-certified Microbial Consultant (CMC)
* Council-certified Microbial Investigator (CMI)

Microbial Remediation

* Council-certified Microbial Remediation Supervisor (CMRS)
* Council-certified Microbial Remediator (CMR)

Indoor Air Quality Administration

* Council-certified Indoor Air Quality Manager (CIAQM)
* Council-certified Microbial Claims Adjuster (CMCA)

Residential Mold Inspection

* Council-certified Residential Mold Inspector (CRMI)

Aga Khan Trust for Culture,AKTC,AKAA,HCP,AKMICA,AKPIA

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The Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) is an agency of the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN). It focuses on the revitalization of communities in the Muslim world—physical, social, cultural, and economic

The AKTC was founded in 1988 and is registered in Geneva, Switzerland, as a private non-denominational philanthropic foundation. It is an integral part of the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN), a family of institutions created by Aga Khan IV with distinct but complementary mandates to improve the welfare of people in the developing world.

Programs

* Aga Khan Award for Architecture (AKAA) is an architectural prize recognizes architectural excellence in the Muslim world.
* Aga Khan Historic Cities Programme (HCP) supports the revitalization of historic sites in the Muslim world.
* Aga Khan Music Initiative in Central Asia (AKMICA) provides financial resources and technical assistance to support the preservation and promotion of professional oral tradition music in Central Asia and surrounding regions.
* Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture (AKPIA) is an endowed center for the history, theory and practice of Islamic architecture at Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
* ArchNet is a website on architecture, urban design, urban development, and related issues in the Muslim world, created in cooperation with MIT.
* Aga Khan Museum refers to two museum projects, the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto and the Museum of Historic Cairo at Al-Azhar Park, Cairo. It also provides support services for museums in the developing world, including the National Museum of Mali.

African Wild Dog Conservancy

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The African Wild Dog Conservancy (AWD Conservancy) is a non-profit, 501(c)(3), non-governmental organization, working with local communities, and national and international stakeholders, to conserve the African wild dog through scientific research and education.

Projects

The AWD Conservancy has a community-based conservation project in two biodiversity hotspots in southeastern Kenya. This region is rich mosaic of protected areas and community lands under extreme threat, with at least 70% of the original habitat destroyed. Due to past civil strife little is known about the many threatened species there. This area is a potentially significant refuge for wild dogs and an important corridor for the metapopulation of the Horn of Africa, as well as for other threatened wildlife species. Virtually nothing is known about the conservation status and ecology of wild dogs in this region, including their interactions with people and potential impact on one of their prey species, the Critically Endangered hirola, Beatragus hunteri. This project has been identified as a wild dog conservation priority by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group and the American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA)/Wild Dog Species Survival Program.

The AWD Conservancy is currently working with AZA member zoos to better understand the process of pack formation in this socially complex species. This ongoing study aims to provide a scientific basis for establishing introductory guidelines to minimize stress, reduce risk of physical injury, and facilitate social integration when forming artificially selected packs. Findings have potential application for zoo management and translocations in free-ranging populations.

Allergen

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Most humans mount significant Immunoglobulin E (IgE) responses only as a defense against parasitic infections. However, some individuals mount an IgE response against common environmental antigens. This hereditory predisposition is called atopy. In atopic individuals, non-parasitic antigens stimulate inappropriate IgE production, leading to type I hypersensitivity. Sensitivities vary from one person to another and it is possible to be allergic to an extraordinary range of substances.

Types of allergies

Dust mite excretion, pollen and pet dander are all common allergens, but it is possible to be allergic to anything from chlorine to perfume. Food allergies are not as common as food sensitivity, but some foods such as peanuts (really a legume), nuts, seafood and shellfish are the cause of serious allergies in many people.

Officially, the Food and Drug Administration does recognize 8 foods as being common for allergic reactions in a large segment of the sensitive population, which includes, peanuts, tree nuts, eggs, milk, shellfish, fish, wheat and their derivatives, soy and their derivatives, and sulphites (chemical based, often found in flavors and colors in foods) at 10ppm and over. See the FDA website for complete details. It should be noted that other countries, due to differences in genetic profiles of its citizens and different levels of exposure to different foods, the "official" allergen list will change. Canada recognizes all eight of the allergens recognized by the US, and also recognizes sesame seeds.

A few people have been recorded to be allergic to certain chemicals found in almost all water, and even water itself (see Aquagenic pruritus).

Another type of allergen is urushiol, a resin produced by poison ivy and poison oak. It causes the skin rash condition known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis by changing a skin cell's configuration so that it is no longer recognized by the immune system as part of the body. A little over half of North Americans are known to be allergic to urushiol and repeated exposure can increase one's sensitivity to the allergen.

An allergic reaction can be caused by any form of direct contact with the allergen—eating or drinking a food you are sensitive to (ingestion), breathing in pollen, perfume or pet dander (inhalation), or brushing your body against an allergy-causing plant (direct contact, generally resulting in hives). Other common causes of serious allergy are wasp, fire ant and bee stings, penicillin, and latex. An extremely serious form of an allergic reaction, which can kill in mere minutes, is called anaphylaxis. One form of treatment is the administration of sterile epinephrine (via "Epi-Pen") to the person experiencing anaphylaxis, which suppresses the body's overreaction to the food ingested, and allows for time to be transported to a medical facility (it does not "cure" the allergic reaction).

Avian influenza

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* Influenza
* Virus
* Avian influenza
* Flu season
* Research
* Vaccine
* Treatment
* Genome project
* H5N1 strain

For the H5N1 subtype of Avian influenza see H5N1.

Avian influenza, sometimes Avian flu, and commonly Bird flu, refers to "influenza caused by viruses adapted to birds."

"Bird flu" is a phrase similar to "Swine flu", "Dog flu", "Horse flu", or "Human flu" in that it refers to an illness caused by any of many different strains of influenza viruses that have adapted to a specific host. All known viruses that cause influenza in birds belong to the species: Influenza A virus. All subtypes (but not all strains of all subtypes) of Influenza A virus are adapted to birds, which is why for many purposes avian flu virus is the Influenza A virus (note that the "A" does not stand for "avian").

Adaptation is non-exclusive. Being adapted towards a particular species does not preclude adaptations, or partial adaptations, towards infecting different species. In this way strains of influenza viruses are adapted to multiple species, though may be preferential towards a particular host. For example, viruses responsible for influenza pandemics are adapted to both humans and birds. Recent influenza research into the genes of the Spanish Flu virus shows it to have genes adapted to both birds and humans; with more of its genes from birds than less deadly later pandemic strains.

Genetics

Genetic factors in distinguishing between "human flu viruses" and "avian flu viruses" include:

PB2: (RNA polymerase): Amino acid (or residue) position 627 in the PB2 protein encoded by the PB2 RNA gene. Until H5N1, all known avian influenza viruses had a Glu at position 627, while all human influenza viruses had a lysine.
HA: (hemagglutinin): Avian influenza HA bind alpha 2-3 sialic acid receptors while human influenza HA bind alpha 2-6 sialic acid receptors. Swine influenza viruses have the ability to bind both types of sialic acid receptors. Hemagglutinin is the major antigen of the virus against which neutralizing antibodies are produced and influenza virus epidemics are associated with changes in its antigenic structure.

Influenza pandemic

Pandemic flu viruses have some avian flu virus genes and usually some human flu virus genes. Both the H2N2 and H3N2 pandemic strains contained genes from avian influenza viruses. The new subtypes arose in pigs coinfected with avian and human viruses and were soon transferred to humans. Swine were considered the original "intermediate host" for influenza, because they supported reassortment of divergent subtypes. However, other hosts appear capable of similar coinfection (e.g., many poultry species), and direct transmission of avian viruses to humans is possible. The Spanish flu virus strain may have been transmitted directly from birds to humans.

In spite of their pandemic connection, avian influenza viruses are noninfectious for most species. When they are infectious they are usually asymptomatic, so the carrier does not have any disease from it. Thus while infected with an avian flu virus, the animal doesn't have a "flu". Typically, when illness (called "flu") from an avian flu virus does occur, it is the result of an avian flu virus strain adapted to one species spreading to another species (usually from one bird species to another bird species). So far as is known, the most common result of this is an illness so minor as to be not worth noticing (and thus little studied). But with the domestication of chickens and turkeys, humans have created species subtypes (domesticated poultry) that can catch an avian flu virus adapted to waterfowl and have it rapidly mutate into a form that kills in days over 90% of an entire flock and spread to other flocks and kill 90% of them and can only be stopped by killing every domestic bird in the area. Until H5N1 infected humans in the 1990s, this was the only reason avian flu was considered important. Since then, avian flu viruses have been intensively studied; resulting in changes in what is believed about flu pandemics, changes in poultry farming, changes in flu vaccination research, and changes in flu pandemic planning.

H5N1 has evolved into a flu virus strain that infects more species than any previously known flu virus strain, is deadlier than any previously known flu virus strain, and continues to evolve becoming both more widespread and more deadly causing Robert Webster, a leading expert on avian flu, to publish an article titled "The world is teetering on the edge of a pandemic that could kill a large fraction of the human population" in American Scientist. He called for adequate resources to fight what he sees as a major world threat to possibly billions of lives. Since the article was written, the world community has spent billions of dollars fighting this threat with limited success.

Antibiotic resistance

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Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a microorganism to withstand the effects of antibiotics. It is a specific type of drug resistance. Antibiotic resistance evolves via natural selection acting upon random mutation, but it can also be engineered by applying an evolutionary stress on a population. Once such a gene is generated, bacteria can then transfer the genetic information in a horizontal fashion (between individuals) by plasmid exchange. If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called multiresistant or, informally, a superbug. The term antimicrobial resistance is sometimes used to explicitly encompass organisms other than bacteria.

Antibiotic resistance can also be introduced artificially into a microorganism through transformation protocols. This can aid in implanting artificial genes into the microorganism. If the resistance gene is linked with the gene to be implanted, the antibiotic can be used to kill off organisms that lack the new gene.

Causes and risk factors

Schematic representation of how antibiotic resistance evolves via natural selection. The top section represents a population of bacteria before exposure to an antibiotic. The middle section shows the population directly after exposure, the phase in which selection took place. The last section shows the distribution of resistance in a new generation of bacteria. The legend indicates the resistance levels of individuals.

Antibiotic resistance can be a result of horizontal gene transfer, and also of unlinked point mutations in the pathogen genome and a rate of about 1 in 108 per chromosomal replication. The antibiotic action against the pathogen can be seen as an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will result in a fully resistant colony.

Several studies have demonstrated that patterns of antibiotic usage greatly affect the number of resistant organisms which develop. Overuse of broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as second- and third-generation cephalosporins, greatly hastens the development of methicillin resistance. Other factors contributing towards resistance include incorrect diagnosis, unnecessary prescriptions, improper use of antibiotics by patients, the impregnation of household items and children's toys with low levels of antibiotics, and the administration of antibiotics by mouth in livestock for growth promotion.

Researchers have recently demonstrated the bacterial protein LexA may play a key role in the acquisition of bacterial mutations.

Mechanisms

The four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are:

1. Drug inactivation or modification: e.g. enzymatic deactivation of Penicillin G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of β-lactamases.
2. Alteration of target site: e.g. alteration of PBP—the binding target site of penicillins—in MRSA and other penicillin-resistant bacteria.
3. Alteration of metabolic pathway: e.g. some sulfonamide-resistant bacteria do not require para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), an important precursor for the synthesis of folic acid and nucleic acids in bacteria inhibited by sulfonamides. Instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to utilizing preformed folic acid.
4. Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability and/or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface.

Resistant pathogens

Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus (colloquially known as "Staph aureus" or a Staph infection) is one of the major resistant pathogens. Found on the mucous membranes and the skin of around a third of the population, it is extremely adaptable to antibiotic pressure. It was the first bacterium in which penicillin resistance was found—in 1947, just four years after the drug started being mass-produced. Methicillin was then the antibiotic of choice, but has since been replaced by oxacillin due to significant kidney toxicity. MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) was first detected in Britain in 1961 and is now "quite common" in hospitals. MRSA was responsible for 37% of fatal cases of blood poisoning in the UK in 1999, up from 4% in 1991. Half of all S. aureus infections in the US are resistant to penicillin, methicillin, tetracycline and erythromycin.

This left vancomycin as the only effective agent available at the time. However, strains with intermediate (4-8 ug/ml) levels of resistance, termed GISA (glycopeptide intermediate Staphylococcus aureus) or VISA (vancomycin intermediate Staphylococcus aureus), began appearing in the late 1990s. The first identified case was in Japan in 1996, and strains have since been found in hospitals in England, France and the US. The first documented strain with complete (>16ug/ml) resistance to vancomycin, termed VRSA (Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) appeared in the United States in 2002.

A new class of antibiotics, oxazolidinones, became available in the 1990s, and the first commercially available oxazolidinone, linezolid, is comparable to vancomycin in effectiveness against MRSA. Linezolid-resistance in Staphylococcus aureus was reported in 2003.

CA-MRSA (Community-acquired MRSA) has now emerged as an epidemic that is responsible for rapidly progressive, fatal diseases including necrotizing pneumonia, severe sepsis and necrotizing fasciitis. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is the most frequently identified antimicrobial drug-resistant pathogen in US hospitals. The epidemiology of infections caused by MRSA is rapidly changing. In the past 10 years, infections caused by this organism have emerged in the community. The 2 MRSA clones in the United States most closely associated with community outbreaks, USA400 (MW2 strain, ST1 lineage) and USA300, often contain Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) genes and, more frequently, have been associated with skin and soft tissue infections. Outbreaks of community-associated (CA)-MRSA infections have been reported in correctional facilities, among athletic teams, among military recruits, in newborn nurseries, and among active homosexual men. CA-MRSA infections now appear to be endemic in many urban regions and cause most CA-S. aureus infections.

Streptococcus and Enterococcus

Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus: GAS) infections can usually be treated with many different antibiotics. Early treatment may reduce the risk of death from invasive group A streptococcal disease. However, even the best medical care does not prevent death in every case. For those with very severe illness, supportive care in an intensive care unit may be needed. For persons with necrotizing fasciitis, surgery often is needed to remove damaged tissue. Strains of S. pyogenes resistant to macrolide antibiotics have emerged, however all strains remain uniformly sensitive to penicillin.

Resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae to penicillin and other beta-lactams is increasing worldwide. The major mechanism of resistance involves the introduction of mutations in genes encoding penicillin-binding proteins. Selective pressure is thought to play an important role, and use of beta-lactam antibiotics has been implicated as a risk factor for infection and colonization. Streptococcus pneumoniae is responsible for pneumonia, bacteremia, otitis media, meningitis, sinusitis, peritonitis and arthritis.

Penicillin-resistant pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (commonly known as pneumococcus), was first detected in 1967, as was penicillin-resistant gonorrhea. Resistance to penicillin substitutes is also known as beyond S. aureus. By 1993 Escherichia coli was resistant to five fluoroquinolone variants. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is commonly resistant to isoniazid and rifampin and sometimes universally resistant to the common treatments. Other pathogens showing some resistance include Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Streptococci.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a highly prelevant opportunistic pathogen. One of the most worrisome characteristics of P. aeruginosa consists in its low antibiotic susceptibility. This low susceptibility is attributable to a concerted action of multidrug efflux pumps with chromosomally-encoded antibiotic resistance genes and the low permeability of the bacterial cellular envelopes. Besides intrinsic resistance, P. aeruginosa easily develop acquired resistance either by mutation in chromosomally-encoded genes, or by the horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistance determinants. Development of multidrug resistance by P. aeruginosa isolates requires several different genetic events that include acquisition of different mutations and/or horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes. Hypermutation favours the selection of mutation-driven antibiotic resistance in P. aeruginosa strains producing chronic infections, whereas the clustering of several different antibiotic resistance genes in integrons favours the concerted acquisition of antibiotic resistance determinants. Some recent studies have shown that phenotypic resistance associated to biofilm formation or to the emergence of small-colony-variants may be important in the response of P. aeruginosa populations to antibiotics treatment.

Clostridium difficile

Clostridium difficile is a nosocomial pathogen that causes diarrheal disease in hospitals world wide. Clindamycin-resistant C. difficile was reported as the causative agent of large outbreaks of diarrheal disease in hospitals in New York, Arizona, Florida and Massachusetts between 1989 and 1992. Geographically dispersed outbreaks of C. difficile strains resistant to fluoroquinolone antibiotics, such as Cipro (ciprofloxacin) and Levaquin (levofloxacin), were also reported in North America in 2005.

Acinetobacter baumannii

On the 5th November 2004 , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported an increasing number of Acinetobacter baumannii bloodstream infections in patients at military medical facilities in which service members injured in the Iraq/Kuwait region during Operation Iraqi Freedom and in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom were treated. Most of these showed multidrug resistance (MRAB), with a few isolates resistant to all drugs tested.

Leachate

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Leachate is the liquid that drains or 'leaches' from a landfill; it varies widely in composition regarding the age of the landfill and the type of waste that it contains. It can usually contain both dissolved and suspended material.

Generation of leachate

The generation of leachate is caused principally by precipitation percolating through waste deposited in a landfill. Once in contact with decomposing solid waste, the percolating water becomes contaminated and if it then flows out of the waste material it is termed leachate. Additional leachate volume is produced during this decomposition of carbonaceous material producing a wide range of other materials including methane, carbon dioxide and a complex mixture of organic acids, aldehydes, alcohols and simple sugars.

The risks of leachate generation can be mitigated by properly designed and engineered landfill sites, such as sites that are constructed on geologically impermeable materials or sites that use impermeable liners made of geotextiles or engineered clay. The use of linings is now mandatory within both the United States and the European Union except where the waste is deemed inert. In addition, most toxic and difficult materials are now specifically excluded from landfilling. However despite much stricter statutory controls leachates from modern sites are found to contain a range of contaminants that may either be associated with some level of illegal activity or may reflect the ubiquitous use of a range of difficult materials in household and domestic products which enter the waste stream legally.

Composition of leachate

When water percolates through the waste, it promotes and assists process of decomposition by bacteria and fungi. These processes in turn release by-products of decomposition and rapidly use up any available oxygen creating an anoxic environment. In actively decomposing waste the temperature rises and the pH falls rapidly and many metal ions which are relatively insoluble at neutral pH can become dissolved in the developing leachate. The decomposition processes themselves release further water which adds to the volume of leachate. Leachate also reacts with materials that are not themselves prone to decomposition such as fire ash and cement based building materials changing the chemical composition. In sites with large volumes of building waste, especially those containing gypsum plaster, the reaction of leachate with the gypsum can generate large volumes of hydrogen sulfide which may be released in the leachate and may also form a large component of the landfill gas.

In a landfill that receives a mixture of municipal, commercial, and mixed industrial waste, but excludes significant amounts of concentrated specific chemical waste, landfill leachate may be characterized as a water-based solution of four groups of contaminants ; dissolved organic matter (alcohols, acids, aldehydes, short chain sugars etc.), inorganic macro components (common cations and anions including sulfate, chloride, Iron, aluminium, zinc and ammonia), heavy metals (Pb, Ni, Cu, Hg, , and xenobiotic organic compounds such as halogenated organics, (PCBs, dioxins etc.).

The physical appearance of leachate when it emerges from a typical landfill site is a strongly-odoured yellow- or orange-coloured cloudy liquid. The smell is acidic and offensive and may be very pervasive because of hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur rich organic species such as mercaptans.

Leachate management

In older landfills and those with no membrane between the waste and the underlying geology, leachate is free to egress the waste directly into the groundwater. In such cases high concentrations of leachate are often found in nearby springs and flushes. As leachate first emerges it can be black in colour, anoxic and may be effervescent with dissolved and entrained gases. As it becomes oxygenated it tends to turn brown or yellow because of the presence of Iron salts in solution and in suspension. It also quickly develops a bacterial flora often comprising substantial growths of Sphaerotilus.

Membrane and collection for treatment

More modern landfills in the developed world have some form of membrane separating the waste from the surrounding ground and in such sites there is often a leachate collection series of pipes laid on the membrane to convey the leachate to a collection or treatment location. For an example of a treatment system with only minor membrane use, see Nantmel Landfill Site.

All membranes are porous to some limited extent so that over time low volumes of leachate will cross the membrane. The design of landfill membranes is at such low volumes that they should never have a measurable adverse impact on the quality of the receiving groundwater. A more significant risk may be the failure or abandonment of the leachate collection system. Such systems are prone to internal failure as landfills suffer large internal movements as waste decomposes unevenly and thus buckles and distorts pipes. If a leachate collection system fails, leachate levels will slowly build in a site and may even over-top the containing membrane and flow out into the environment. Rising leachate levels can also wet waste masses that have previously been dry triggering off a new way of active decomposition and leachate generation. Thus what appears to be a stabilised and inactive site can become re-activated and restart significant gas production and exhibit significant changes in finished ground levels.

Re-injection into landfill

One method of leachate management that was more common in uncontained sites was leachate re-circulation in which leachate was collected and re-injected into the waste mass. This process greatly accelerated decomposition and therefore gas production and had the impact of converting some leachate volume into landfill gas and reducing the overall volume of leachate for disposal. However it also tended to increase substantially the concentrations of contaminant materials making it a more difficult waste to treat.

Removal to sewer system

In some older landfills, leachate was directed to the sewers, but this can cause a number of problems. Toxic metals from leachate passing through the sewage treatment plant concentrate in the sewage sludge making it difficult or dangerous to dispose of to land without incurring a risk to the environment. In Europe regulations and control have improved in recent decades and toxic wastes are now no longer permitted to be disposed of to the Municipal Solid Waste landfills, and in most developed countries the metals problem has diminished. Paradoxically, however, as sewage treatment works discharges are being improved throughout Europe and many other countries, the sewage treatment works operators are finding that leachates are difficult waste streams to treat because they contain very high ammoniacal nitrogen concentrations, they are usually very acidic , they are often anoxic and, if received in large volumes relative to the incoming sewage flow, the lack of Phosphorus in particular can result in nutrient starvation for the biological communities that perform the sewage treatment processes making leachate a difficult to treat waste stream. However, within aging municipal solid waste landfills this may not be a problem as the pH returns close to neutral after the initial stage of acidogenic leachate decomposition. Many sewer undertakers limit maximum ammonical nitrogen concentration in their sewers to 250 mg/l to protect sewer maintenance workers, as the WHO's maximum occupational safety limit would be exceeded at above pH 9 to 10, which is often the highest permitted pH of permitted sewer discharges.

Many older leachate streams also contained a variety of synthetic organic species and their decomposition products, some of which had the potential to be acutely damaging to the environment.

Environmental impact

The risks from waste leachate are due to its high organic contaminant concentrations and high ammoniacal nitrogen. Pathogenic microorganisms and toxic substances that might be present in it are often cited as the most important, but pathogenic organism counts reduce rapidly with time in the landfill, so this only applies to the most fresh leachate.

Most landfills containing organic material will produce methane, some of which dissolves in the leachate. This could in theory be released in weakly ventilated areas in the treatment plant. All plants in Europe must now be assessed under the EU ATEX Directive and zoned where explosion risks are identified to prevent future accidents. The most important requirement is the prevention of discharge of dissolved methane from untreated leachate when it is discharged into public sewers, and most sewage treatment authorities limit the permissible discharge concentration of dissolved methane to 0.14 mg/l, or 1/10th of the lower explosive limit. This entails methane stripping from the leachate.

The greatest environmental risks occur in the discharges from older sites constructed before modern engineering standards became mandatory and also from sites in the developing world where modern standards have not been applied. There are also substantial risks from illegal sites and ad-hoc sites used by criminal gangs to dispose of waste materials. Leachate streams running directly into the aquatic environment have both an acute and chronic impact on the environment which may be very severe and can severely diminish bio-diversity and greatly reduce populations of sensitive species. Where toxic metals and organics are present this can lead to chronic toxin accumulation in both local and far distant populations. Rivers impacted by leachate are often yellow in appearance and often support severe overgrowths of sewage fungus

Other types of leachate

Leachate can also be produced from land that was contaminated by chemicals or toxic materials used in industrial activities such as factories, mines or storage sites. Composting sites in high rainfall also produce leachate.

Arbovirus infection

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Arbovirus is a shortened name given to viruses that are transmitted by arthropods, or arthropod-borne viruses .

Some Arboviruses are able to cause emergent disease. Arthropods are able to transmit the virus upon biting allowing the virus to enter the bloodstream which can cause viraemia.

The majority of the Arboviruses are spherical in shape although a few are rod shaped. They are 17-150 nm in diameter and most have an RNA genome (the single exception is African Swine Fever virus, which has a DNA genome). These viruses do not normally infect humans but if they do, they usually cause a mild infection such as a fever or a rash. Others however are epidemic and can cause serious infections such as meningitis and encephalitis that can be fatal.

There are ways of preventing these infections from occurring such as using mosquito repellents and getting rid of the breeding grounds that mosquitoes use. Insecticides can also be used. People can also reduce the risk of getting bitten by the mosquito by wearing protective clothing.

The immune system plays a role in defense against the infections. Arboviruses usually stimulate interferon. Antibodies are made and these can prevent viraemia from occurring. The cell mediated immunity is also important.

Arbovirus infections can be diagnosed by carrying out ELISA and PCR techniques. Complement fixation can also be used.

Visual pollution

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Visual pollution is the term given to unattractive or unnatural (human-made) visual elements of a vista, a landscape, or any other thing that a person might not want to look at. Visual pollution is an aesthetic issue, referring to the impacts of pollution that impair one's ability to enjoy a vista or view. The term is used broadly to cover visibility, limits on the ability to view distant objects, as well as the more subjective issue of visual clutter, structures that intrude upon otherwise "pretty" scenes. Commonly cited examples are advertisements, billboards, landfills, houses, automobiles, traffic signs, roadsigns, highways, roadways, litter, graffiti, overhead powerlines, utility poles, contrails, skywriting, buildings and weeds.

Quicksand

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Quicksand is a colloid hydrogel consisting of fine granular matter (such as sand or silt), clay, and salt water. In the name, as in that of quicksilver (mercury), "quick" does not mean "fast," but "living" (cf. the expression the quick and the dead).

Water circulation underground can focus in an area with just the right mixture of fine sands and other materials such as clay. The water moves up and then down slowly in a convection-like manner throughout a column of sand under optimal conditions, and the sand remains a generally solid mass. This lubricates the sand particles and renders them unable to support any significant weight, since they move around with very little friction, behaving more like a liquid when exposed to stress. Since the water does not usually go all the way up through the sand, the sand above does not appear to move at all, and can support leaves and other small debris, making quicksand difficult to distinguish from the surrounding environment.

Properties

Quicksand is a non-Newtonian fluid: when undisturbed it often appears to be solid ("gel" form), but a minor (less than 1%) change in the stress on the quicksand will cause a sudden decrease in its viscosity ("sol" form). After an initial disturbance—such as a person attempting to walk on it—the water and sand in the quicksand separate and dense regions of sand sediment form; it is because of the formation of these high volume fraction regions that the viscosity of the quicksand seems to increase suddenly. Someone stepping in it will start to sink. In order to move within the quicksand, a person or object must apply sufficient pressure on the compacted sand to re-introduce enough water to liquefy it. The forces required to do this are quite large: to remove a foot from quicksand at a speed of one centimeter per second would require the same amount of force as "that needed to lift a medium-sized car."

Recent research findings

It was commonly believed that the behavior of quicksand was due solely to saturated or supersaturated suspensions of granules in water. Pressure from underground sources of water would separate and suspend the granular particles, reducing the friction between them. As of September 2005, it has been shown that it is the presence of salt that is largely responsible The stability of the colloidal quicksand is compromised by the presence of salt, increasing the likelihood of sand flocculation and the formation of the high viscosity regions of sediment responsible for quicksand's "trapping" power.

Prevalence

Quicksand may be found inland (on riverbanks, near lakes, or in marshes), or near the coast.

One region notorious for its quicksands is Morecambe Bay, England. As the bay is very broad and shallow, a person trapped by the quicksand would be exposed to the danger of the returning tide, which can come in rapidly.

Environmental adult education

2009-02-25T21:22:00.001-08:00

Environmental Adult Education is recognized as a “hybrid outgrowth of the environmental movement and adult education, combining an ecological orientation with a learning paradigm to provide a vigorous educational approach to environmental concerns” (Sumner, 2003).

In laymen’s terms, environmental adult education refers to efforts in teaching environmental issues and how individuals and businesses can manage or change their lifestyles and ecosystems to live sustainably. The overarching goal of this field of study is to educate our global societies to live more sustainably.

From the classroom to the forests, fields, streams and prairies, environmental adult education takes place in both formal and nonformal learning environments and programs.

History

Environmental adult education is a relatively new and unique field of study and practice. It is a community-based method in which educators listen and respect the input of learners, and all participants are considered essential (Haugen, 2006).

During the last thirty years, environmental adult education has evolved. For more than a century, environmental and conservation organizations taught adults environmental education with very little structure.

The United States was one of the first countries to officially recognize environmental education. During a joint House-Senate session in 1968, Congress acknowledged the importance of environmental education, and in 1970 passed the Environmental Education Act, which established the Office of Environmental Education (American Geological Institute 2000).

Timeline of the Ideology of Environmental Adult Education (EAE):

* Mid-1970s: EAE recognized as distinct field of study
* Late 1980s: EAE focus on learner experience
* Late 1990s, Early 2000: Focus shifted to how to teach EAE
* 1997: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) hosted conference on adult education with EAE being one of the 33 workshops presented

Earlier Environmental Education Initiatives

2009-02-25T21:20:00.000-08:00

According to the UNESCO Web site, in 1968 it organized the first intergovernmental conference aimed at reconciling the environment and development, now known as “sustainable development”. In the following years, UNESCO and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) initiated three major declarations that defined environmental education. Those included:

* 1972: Stockholm Declaration. This document included seven proclamations and 26 principles “to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and enhancement of the human environment.”
* 1975: Belgrade Charter. The product of the International Workshop on Environmental Education, this charter built upon the Stockholm Declaration by adding goals, objectives and principles for environmental education programs.
* 1977: Tbilisi Declaration. This document updated and clarified the Stockholm Declaration and the Belgrade Charter by including new goals, objectives, characteristics, and guiding principles of environmental education.

Methods of Adult Environmental Education Training

2009-02-25T21:19:00.000-08:00

Educators in this field of study consider environmental problems with a holistic approach that combines social, political and environmental concerns into community dilemmas (Haugen 2006).

Participatory methods allow learners to make connections between social issues and environmental problems. This connection allows adult learners to understand the core causes of major environmental issues and the resulting social inequalities. This method also allows educators to stress the importance of instilling environmental awareness so that learners do not forget their relationship with the natural world.

To summarize the methods of adult environmental education training, environmental adult educators strive to instill learners with:

* a knowledge of environmental problems and their causes
* the skills to engage in social activism to combat those problems
* the attitude of respect and connection to the natural world
* a desire to change current practices to protect the Earth

Environmental adult education generally takes place in a nonformal education setting. This means that the organized learning can take place in many forms including vocational education, literacy education and on the job training (Haugen 2006).

The Need for Adult Environmental Education

2009-02-25T21:10:00.000-08:00

Environmental problems are a reality in today’s culture that cannot be ignored. Growing environmental troubles that the world is facing today include:

* Global warming

* Pollution

* Habitat devastation

* Overpopulation

* Waste disposal

* Diminishing resources

As you can see, education is the key to reaching environmental sustainability. In this instance, sustainability is defined as “developing a way of human living that will ensure an enduring and sufficient level of support from the earth’s resources” (Parker & Towner, 1993).

Programs and Organizations that Encourage Adult Environmental Education

2009-02-25T21:01:00.000-08:00

Programs and Organizations that Encourage Adult Environmental Education

* Conservation education and governmental agencies such as the Forestry Service and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) were established to educate adults in broad areas of the environment.

* The Nature Conservancy, originally the Ecological Society of America, was formed in 1915 with the missions of supporting ecologists and preserving natural ecosystems.

* The 4-H Organization was also established to reach adults by educating youth in areas of new agricultural technology and environmental awareness.

* The Peace Corps, established in 1961, has worked to incorporate adult environmental education and conservation practices into its international programming. Volunteers assist in:

* Environmental education

* Recycling

* Wildlife protection

* Park management

* Alleviating water-borne diseases

* Providing potable water

* Project WET (Water Education for Teachers) is a nonprofit water education program and publisher. This program “promotes awareness, appreciation, knowledge and stewardship of water resources through the dissemination of classroom-ready teaching aids and the establishment of internationally sponsored Project WET programs.” Committed to global water education that is implemented at the community level, the mission of Project WET is to reach children, parents, educators, and communities of the world with water education (Project WET).

* Project WILD is a conservation and environmental education program for educators of students in kindergarten through high school. Project WILD addresses the need for human beings to develop as responsible citizens of our planet. It is based on the fact that young adults and educators have an interest in learning about the natural world (Project WILD).

* Project Learning Tree is a multi-disciplinary environmental education program for educators and students. A program of the American Forest Foundation, PLT meets education standards. The curriculum provides tools needed to bring the environment into the classroom and students into the environment. Topics range from wildlife, water and forests, to community planning, waste management and energy (Project Learning Tree).

Sechura Desert

2009-02-09T10:37:00.001-08:00

The Sechura desert, also known as the Peruvian Desert or the Peru-Chile Desert, is a large stretch of desert extending north from the Atacama Desert along the northwestern South American coast. Most of the desert is located on the western coast of Peru, with small parts in Chile near the Atacama Desert.

Location and Naming

The desert occupies a strip along the northern Pacific coast of Peru south of Piura region, extending from the coast 20-100 km inland to the secondary ridges of the Andes Mountains. At its northern end near the city of Piura, the Sechura desert transitions to the Tumbes-Piura tropical-dry forests egoregion (an area that also covers eastern Lambayeque) composed of equatorial dry forests. The total area of the Sechura desert is 188,735 km².

Within Peru the Sechura Desert name is confined to the most northwestern portion of the country (Piura and Lambayeque regions). Foreign sources, such as the World Wildlife Fund, define it as the whole stretch of coastal desert from the northwestern tip of Peru to parts of northern Chile, bordering the Atacama Desert. Because of this and the fact that the strip of desert between the Atacama and the northwestern coast of Peru would otherwise be nameless, the entire arid region of the coast of Peru shall be hereby referenced as the Sechura Desert.

History

The name sechura derives from a culture that developed called the SEC, around the year 400 B.C. In 1728 the old Sechura town was destroyed by a tsunami and moved to its current location. During El Niño years, flooding is not uncommon; in 1998 the runoff from the floods poured into the coastal Sechura Desert. Where there had been nothing but arid hardscrabble waste for 15 years, suddenly, amazingly, there lay the second largest lake in Peru: 90 miles (145 kilometers) long, 20 miles (30 kilometers) wide, and ten feet (three meters) deep, with occasional parched domes of sand and clay poking up eerily from the surface.

Geography and Climate

The Peruvian Desert has a very low temperature range due to the moderating effect of the nearby Pacific Ocean, but because of the upwelling of cold coastal waters and because of subtropical atmospheric subsidence, the desert is one of the most arid on Earth. This should not be surprising considering its proximity to the driest place in the world, the Atacama Desert.

Summer (December through March) is warm and sunny with temperatures that average over 24 °C. In summer it ranges from 25º to 38º. The Winter (June through September) is cool and cloudy with temperatures that vary from 16º C during the night and 24º C during the day.

The numerous short rivers that cross the Sechura have supported human settlements for millennia. A number of urban cultures have flourished here, including the Moche, the Moche thrived on fish, guinea pigs, squash and peanuts. The Sican Culture (c.800-1300) succeeded the Moche, and are known for their lost wax goldsmithing. The rivers still support intensive irrigated agriculture on their fertile bottomlands. Two of Peru's five largest cities, including Piura,and Chiclayo, lie within the region.

Simpson Desert

2009-02-09T10:36:00.000-08:00

The Simpson Desert occupies approximately 176,500 square kilometres of central Australia. It is located within, and near the common boundaries of the Northern Territory, South Australia and Queensland states of Australia. It is bounded to the west by the Finke River and Mabel Range, to the north by Adam Range, to the east by the Georgina and Diamantina Rivers, with Lake Eyre to the south. Average annual rainfall is less than 200 mm.

The Simpson Desert is underlain by the Great Artesian Basin, water from which rises to the surface at numerous natural springs, including Dalhousie Springs, and at bores drilled along stock routes, or during gas and oil exploration. As a result of exploitation by such bores, the flow of water to springs has been steadily decreasing in recent years.

The Simpson Desert is an erg which contains the world's longest parallel sand dunes. These north-south oriented dunes are static, held in position by vegetation. They vary in height from 3 metres in the west to around 30 metres on the eastern side. The most famous dune, Nappanerica, or, more popularly, Big Red (named by Simpson Desert traveller Dennis Bartell), is 40 metres in height. There are reportedly 1100 dunes in the Simpson.

The explorer Charles Sturt, who visited the region from 1844-1846, was the first European to see the desert, but it was not until 1936 that Ted Colson became the first white man to cross it in its entirety. The name Simpson Desert was coined by Cecil Madigan, after Alfred Allen Simpson, an Australian philanthropist, geographer, and president of the Royal Geographical Society of South Australia.

No maintained roads cross the desert. However, there are tracks that were made during seismic surveys in the search for gas and oil during the 1960s and 1970s. These include the French Line, the Rig Road, and the QAA Line. Such tracks are still navigable by well-equipped four-wheel-drive vehicles which must carry extra fuel and water. Towns providing access to the edge of the Simpson Desert include Oodnadatta to the southwest, and Birdsville in the east. Last fuel on the western side is at the Mount Dare hotel and store. Before 1980, a section of the Commonwealth Railways Central Australian line passed along the western side of the Simpson Desert. Within the Simpson, the ruins at Dalhousie Springs, Dalhousie Springs, Purnie Bore wetlands, Approdinna Attora Knoll and Poeppel Corner (where Queensland, South Australia and Northern Territory meet) are popular landmarks.

Because of the excessive heat and inadequately experienced drivers attempting to access the desert in the past, it has been decided to close the Simpson Desert during the summer of 2008-2009 — to save unprepared "adventurers" from themselves

Pine barrens ,canopy forest,Lycaeides melissa samuelis,Agalinis acuta,Hemileuca maia

2009-02-09T10:30:00.000-08:00

Pine barrens, also known as pine plains, sand plains, pinelands, pine bush, and pitch pine-scrub oak barrens, occur throughout the northeastern U.S. from New Jersey to Maine (see Atlantic coastal pine barrens) as well as the Midwest and Canada. Pine barrens are plant communities that occur on dry, acidic, infertile soils dominated by grasses, forbs, low shrubs, and scattered trees; most extensive barrens occur in large areas of sandy glacial deposits, including outwash plains, lakebeds, and outwash terraces along rivers. The most common trees are the Jack Pine, Red Pine, Pitch Pine, Blackjack Oak, and Scrub Oak; a scattering of larger Oaks is not unusual. The understory is composed of grasses, sedges, and forbs, many of them common in dry prairies. Plants of the heath family, such as blueberries and bearberry, and shrubs such as prairie willow and hazelnut are common. These species have adaptations that permit them to survive or regenerate well after fire. Pine barrens support a number of rare species, including lepidoptera such as the Karner Blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) and the barrens buck moth (), and plants such as the Sand-plain Gerardia (Agalinis acuta).

Barrens are dependent on fire to prevent invasion by woody species. In the absence of fire barrens will proceed through successional stages from savanna to closed-canopy forest. European settlers found extensive areas of open game habitat throughout the East, commonly called "barrens". The American Indians used fire to maintain such areas as rangeland. Open barrens are now rare and imperiled globally, as suppression of wildfires has allowed woody vegetation to take over in most one-time barrens. In North America, barrens exist primarily in the American Midwest and along the east coast.

In 1968, John McPhee published a book, entitled The Pine Barrens, exploring the history, ecology and geography of the New Jersey Pine Barrens, infused with his own personal memoirs.

Western Islands, Papua New Guinea

2009-02-03T10:09:00.001-08:00

The Western Islands are a group of islands in the Bismarck Archipelago, part of Papua New Guinea, off the northeastern coast of New Guinea in the western Pacific Ocean.

Islands :

Aua Island
Hermit Islands
Kaniet Islands
Ninigo Islands
Wuvulu Island